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British Museum (Natural Histor^r

Geological aspects of the voyage of
HMS Investigator in Australian Waters,
1801-5

T. G. Vallance & D. T. Moore

Historical series VollONol 28 January 1982

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World List abbreviation: Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1982

ISSN 0068-2306 Historical series

Vol 10 No 1 pp 1—43
British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5BD Issued 28 January 1982

Geological aspects of the voyage of

HMS Investigator in Australian Waters, 1801-5

T. G. Vallance

GENERAL *

27JAN1982

* LIBRARY <£

^

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Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006,
Australia

D. T. Moore

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London
SW7 5BD

Contents

Synopsis

Prelude

The Voyage of the Investigat or ....

Voyage to Sydney 1801-2

Voyage to Arnhem Land 1802-3 and return to Sydney
An annotated transcript of Robert Brown's catalogue of rocks collected
August 1802-April 1803
The stay in Australia 1803-5
Postlude

Acknowledgements
Abbreviations used
References .
Appendix: John Hawkins's Geological Instructions

1
1

5
6
9

12
30
34
37
37
37
39

Synopsis

The voyage of HMS Investigator (1801-5) is remembered by natural scientists chiefly for the botanical work
of Robert Brown. That there was even a subsidiary effort directed to mineralogy or geology owes much to
the enthusiasm of the commander, Matthew Flinders, R.N., and little to the Admiralty's scientific adviser,
Sir Joseph Banks. The geological collections made during the expedition to Australia are used here as a key
to elucidating a neglected aspect of this venture. What remains of the collections, after 171 years in the
keeping of the British Museum (where they constitute the oldest expedition collection of rocks from any part
of the world), has now been set in order and related to the records of the expedition. If the geological
achievement lies principally in what at the time was called mineral geography, at least Brown's discoveries of
fossils led to pioneering work in the stratigraphy of Australia. In general, however, the later record is one of
sorry neglect. Through ignorance of Brown's collection, for instance, the manganese deposits he found in
northern Australia during 1803 have had to be rediscovered during the present century.

Prelude

Among hydrographers and botanists the voyage of HMS Investigator is justly renowned.
Achievements in these fields have united with the remarkable conjunction of resource, courage
and misfortune that marked the command of Matthew Flinders (1774-1814) to fascinate later
generations. The expedition had been despatched to further the interests of maritime survey and
natural history but, as one finds in the instructions (Flinders, 1814, 1, pp 8-12) issued by the
Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty, the latter department was narrowly conceived. Those
instructions refer in some detail to the botanical duties of a naturalist and a gardener. One of the
two artists assigned to the expedition was a botanical painter. Nothing is said in the instructions

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.) 10 (1): 1-43

Issued 28 January 1982

2 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

about a 'practical miner' who, with a landscape painter, completed the civilian party. What
could a miner contribute to a botanical survey, if that were intended? The record of the ex-
pedition, both in its planning and execution, shows botany to have been the aim of Sir Joseph
Banks (1743-1820), to whom the Admiralty turned for advice in science. Banks imposed his own
interests but others, not least Flinders himself, had made representations in favour of bringing
geological effort within the scope of the voyage. The practical miner seems to have been Banks's
answer, an answer that demanded invention of a role for the man and which, in turn, betrays the
limits of Banksian vision in science. Yet there was a geological side to the voyage. In this study we
examine a neglected field, relying chiefly on contemporary documents and collections.

The commissioners' failure to express a geological interest, no matter what the reason, con-
trasts strangely with earlier practice. More than a century before, knowledge of the great mineral
treasures yielded by Africa and South America had brought many Europeans to believe that all
southern lands were similarly endowed. William Dampier (1652-1715), the first English captain
to visit what the Dutch called New Holland, held such views and returned there at the behest of
the Admiralty in 1699. He may not have found anything to encourage the notion that the land
abounded in valuable minerals (Dampier, 1703, p. 138) but hope persisted. James Cook (1728-
1779) was advised to look out for precious materials in appropriate latitudes. He carried with him
on his first voyage (1768-1771) round the world a set of 'Hints' of a scientific nature, prepared by
James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton (1702-1768), then president of the Royal Society. The hints
included a section headed Minerals & Fossils (Beaglehole, 1955, pp 518-519). The remarkable R.
E. Raspe (1737-1794), with an eye to private advantage, in 1776 set down his geological thoughts
(BL Add MS 30262 ff 1 1-12) for Cook before the last voyage. Even Joseph Banks who, with his
private staff, accompanied Cook when the eastern shore of New Holland was found and called
New South Wales, was moved to express a passing thought about the mineral potential of New
Zealand (Beaglehole, 1962, 1 p. 472; 2 p. 4). In New South Wales he seemed interested only in the
plants and animals.

Banks's close interest in Australasia and aspects of its natural history, bred on that voyage with
Cook, remained strong. Elected president of the Royal Society in 1778, an office he held for the
rest of his life, Banks became a powerful advocate of Australian settlement and exploration.
When a penal colony was established at Sydney Cove in 1788 the founding officers were his
correspondents, supplying him with specimens, observations and advice. They, and their suc-
cessors, knew his particular inclination to botany and sought to please so influential a patron.

The remote settlement at Sydney, in its early years, was utterly dependent on supplies brought
across uncharted seas. There was a clear and urgent need for a coastal survey but exploration of
more than the most local kind lay beyond colonial capacity. By 1795 only some 100 miles of coast
north and south of Sydney had been examined and that in no great detail (Flinders, 1814, 1, p.
xcvi). As Flinders was at pains to point out, that year marked something of a change in the pace
of survey. It was when he arrived in the colony on the vessel bringing a new colonial governor,
John Hunter (1737-1821). Flinders had already been in Australian waters. Some years before, as
a junior officer under William Bligh (1754-1817), he had charted part of Adventure Bay, Van
Diemen's Land (Tasmania). That visit in 1792 and, in fact, the whole voyage with Bligh, seems to
have quickened his interest in geology (Vallance, 1975, p. 23) as well as helped develop an
enthusiasm for maritime surveying.

From 1795 until early 1800, Flinders often in company with his friend George Bass (1771—
1803) used what vessels could be spared in Sydney, even rowing-boats, to extend the survey of the
coasts. Hunter encouraged the effort. He reported progress to Banks but Hunter's pleas for more
worthy support for the cause of exploration brought no immediate practical response. Britain
was at war and survey-work in remote parts had no priority. Nevertheless Hunter had sown seed
in fertile ground. Thanks to his reports Banks knew something of Flinders's enthusiasm and skill
in map-making.

Flinders returned to England during August 1800 and lost little time in reporting to Banks. On
6 September he wrote a long letter (Mitchell Lib., Sydney. Banks Paps. XX, 59) outlining his work
on the coast of New South Wales and how it might be developed. That so much of ' that still
extensive country remains either totally unknown, or has been partially examined at a time when

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 3

navigation was much less advanced than at present ' seemed justification enough for a thorough
survey but Flinders also appealed through natural history for Banks's support. The theme
Flinders chose to emphasize is revealing:

Then a person or persons could be accomodated who should examine into the
natural productions of this wonderful country, for surely what has already
been found is materially different from all others; and the mineralogical
branch would probably not be the least interesting.

It was not the first time Banks had been urged to support mineralogical study in Australia.
Hunter, writing 1 August 1797 (BM (NH) DTC 10(2) 108), made a similar point. Some, like a
certain Baron Wilhelm von Fiirk of Hamburg (Fiirk to Banks, 20 Dec. 1801. Mitchell Lib.,
Sydney. Brabourne Paps. 10, 331), even offered to go out in the service of mineralogy. And not
only Banks at this time heard of the advantages of geological exploration in New South Wales.
John Mawe (1764-1829) the mineralogist and dealer prepared a detailed statement for Lord
Pelham outlining a plan for a mineralogical expedition to New South Wales (BL Add MS 33124
ff 109-116). The document is undated but the following remarks suggest preparation in 1799 or
1800:

... I was informd it is promulgated to send men to our Colony in New South Wales, if so it
will be truly mortifying to see the French publish the Geology of our Settlements &c or
working mines in our Colonies, for by thus employing Mineralogists, they [the French]
render as it where, a bounty for Discovery . . .

Mawe had been well-informed; a surveying expedition with two vessels and a large staff of
scientists, among them two trained mineralogists (Louis Depuch (d. 1803) and J. C. Bailly
(1777-1844)), left France for Australia under the command of Nicolas Baudin (1754-1803) in
October 1800, before Banks had responded to Flinders' letter. Banks knew details of the French
scheme for he had been instrumental in securing issue of a passport for the vessels in case of war.

Banks acted swiftly after meeting Flinders. A plan for an Australian expedition was approved
at the Admiralty and sanctioned by the King in a matter of days. Before the end of November
1800 a vessel had been chosen and ordered to be prepared. But the Admiralty left matters
scientific to Banks. He determined the botanical flavour. Changes in the ship were made to
accommodate more plants, at Banks's direction. If Flinders still hoped to have a mineralogist,
and it is interesting to note his letter of 24 January 1801 (HR NSW, 4, 291) advising Banks of
modifications to accommodate botanical materials and the collections of the mineralogist, Banks
clearly had other ideas. There was to be one naturalist and he a botanist.

For the post of naturalist, Banks turned to Robert Brown (1773-1858), then ensign and
assistant surgeon with the Fifeshire Fencibles on duty in Ireland (Edwards, 1976). Brown had
studied medicine first at Aberdeen and later in Edinburgh where he also attended for two sessions
the Natural History Class conducted by John Walker (1731-1803) and in one of them (1792) was
a fellow-student with Robert Jameson (1774-1854), eventually Walker's successor. There Brown
must have learned something about the Earth and its materials, for Walker had geological
interests (Scott, 1966). But it was botanical nature that captivated Brown — and had done so since
boyhood.

To assist Brown, a gardener Peter Good (d. 1803), who already had some experience of the care
of plants at sea, and a botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer (1760-1826), who likewise had knowledge
of expedition-work, were appointed. A landscape painter joined them. He was William Westall
(1781-1850), a man destined for modest fame as a watercolourist and rather less as brother-in-law
to the Cambridge geologist Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873). Banks responded to the business of a
mineralogist by asking William Milnes (1757-1814) of Ashover, agent for the Derbyshire mines in
which he had considerable interests, to find a miner willing to join the expedition.

Milnes must have been slow for on 20 January 1801 Banks wrote again urging him to continue
the search. The letter reveals what Banks then had in mind:

The person need not be an able miner, as no trials are intended to be made below the surface.

4 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

All mines in a new country may be seen at the surface. What is expected of the person who
will be sent out is that he, under the direction of the naturalist, take specimens of all rocks,
and particularly of the contents of all mineral veins he meets with, and brings them home.
(HR NSW, 4, p. 291).

He added that the voyage would very likely ' make the fortune of the person who engages in the
mineral line ' for ' none of the mountains where precious metals are most likely to lie have yet
been examined '. If Derbyshire failed to provide the man he wanted he would get one from
Cornwall and that ' will be severely reported hereafter '.

Although it has been claimed recently (Harris, 1974) that John Allen, the miner found for the
voyage, was a native of Camborne there can be no doubt he came from Derbyshire. Banks
mentions him both as 'my Derbyshire friend' (BL Add MS 32439 f 95v) and 'a Derbyshire
miner' (BL Add MS 32439 f 237v), Milnes acted as Allen's agent during his absence and, finally,
there is Allen's will (Sutro Lib., San Francisco. Banks Paps.) This document names his mother,
Elizabeth Allen, and a brother, James, both of Ashover. Searches of the Ashover Parish Registers
kindly made for us by Mr S. R. Band of Wingerworth reveal a baptismal entry dated 7 May 1775
for John son of James Allen, Park. Mr Band advises that Park signifies Overton Park, an estate
Sir Joseph Banks inherited from his uncle in 1792. The Banksian connexion, Banks's references to
the miner in 1801 as a young man and the one John Allen in the baptismal register for the
appropriate period lead us to believe he was the man. He would have been aged 26 years, when he
sailed with Flinders. We know nothing of Allen's activities before 1801 though the fact that he
could write, if in a laboured hand (two letters and other Allen documents are in the collection of
the Sutro Library, San Francisco), suggests education beyond that attained by most ' practical '
miners at the time. If Allen kept a journal while on the Investigator it has not been found; we
depend on the records of his colleagues to know what he did.

Banks made it clear the miner was only an assistant; Allen, and Good, were not scientific
gentlemen, they were with them. Having the responsibility for directing Allen, Brown probably
thought it necessary to enlarge his own geological knowledge. Edwards (1976, p. 388) mentions
that Brown received instruction in that subject from a Mr Hawkins. In fact, Hawkins's Instruc-
tions were preserved by Brown and are now in the British Library; they are printed here for the
first time (appendix). The document enables us to identify the writer as John Hawkins (1761—
1841), M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge and one of the first Englishmen to attend (in 1786 and
again in 1793) the Bergakademie at Freiberg, Saxony. There he became a friend and admirer of A.
G. Werner (1749-1817) the famous teacher of geognosy and exponent of neptunian concepts of
earth processes. A fluent linguist, Hawkins had many links with German mineralogists; the
distinguished mineral chemist M. H. Klaproth (1743-1817) dedicated the first volume ofBeitrage
zur chemischen Kenntnis der Mineralkorper (1795) to his friend Hawkins. Hawkins, in fact, was an
important link in the exchange of information and ideas between British and German science.
His achievement is still not widely recognized.

How Hawkins and Brown came together is unknown. Banks may have arranged a meeting
(Hawkins, F.R.S. since 1791, was a correspondent of Banks), but a more likely link is Bauer.
When offered his post on Investigator, Bauer was completing sketches begun while travelling in
the eastern Mediterranean region with the Oxford botanist John Sibthorp (1758-1796) and
Hawkins. As an executor of his kinsman Sibthorp's will, Hawkins actively promoted completion
and publication of Sibthorp's work, not least the famous Flora Graeca in ten volumes (1806-
1840). The surviving Hawkins-Brown correspondence (B.M. (N.H.) Bot. Libr., Brown Corr.)
relates mainly to this, none of it to the Instructions of 1801. That is a pity for Banks seems to have
suspected Hawkins of being too persuasive a teacher. Writing on 15 June 1801, Banks set his
protege straight :

I have too good an opinion of your proficiency in the Science you have undertaken to
exercise on board the Investigator to offer you any instructions relative to the mode which is
best to pursue it. The Field is large, much greater than any one man can compleatly occupy.
My advice to you therefore is that you attend chiefly to those branches of Natural History
which you are best acquainted with & in others which may be better brought to perfection

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 5

by Men who enterd more deeply into them, when you return, that you would content
yourself with providing Specimens without troubling yourself to make any observations
upon them except a carefull notation of the place where they were found with such remarks
on their situation in it & on the nature of the Country thereabouts as you may think proper
to write down.

Mr. Hawkins has been so good as to give you ample instruction on the subject of Geology [,]
more I fear than you will find it possible to attend to without sacrificing some of the time
necessary to perfect your operations on the branches of Science which you yourself are
Master of & this I should by no means ever advise you to do[.] Geology [and] Mineralogy
must be considerd by you as subsidiary pursuits & you will be requird to do in them no more
than is compatible with a full attention to Botany[,] Entemology[,] Ornothology &c.
The Miner you will find an industrious & attentive young Man and you will I have no doubt
find time to direct him in such a manner as will enable him to collect abundance of
interesting Specimens, whenever you make any long stay in Port I should advise that after he
has examin'd the Rocks & Steep Craggs where the solid Strata may be seen & collected
Specimens of all that presents itself on the surface that he be employd with such assistance as
can be spard to dig in the bottom of some Valley & orderd carefully to examine all such
Stones or other solid bodies as he shall meet with and bring to you all that have a Metalline
or other interesting appearance[.] if the water does not obstruct him he may sink a Shaft or
Well the timbering of which he knows how to have constructed by the Carpenter & which
may be carried about in the Ship & if by means of such a Shaft he can sink through the loose
strata to the surface of the solid ones it is upon them he is likely to find fragments of Metals
& other valuable bodies whose specific gravity has precipitated them to the bottom — when
the Fragments of solid Strata which now cover the surface of the Earth were at some distant
period of time in motion. (BL Add MS 32439 ff 41-42)

Banks could at times be muddle-headed, and this statement at least in respect of the miner and
digging shafts runs counter to what he had written six months earlier, but the message for Brown
was clear. Banks wanted a botanical survey and he was going to have it. He seems to have
decided only one naturalist was needed for the expedition — which some (e.g. Brown, 1953) have
mistakenly called the Sir Joseph Banks Expedition. Banks would have seen no fault in that.
Brown made his name as a botanist by thus serving Banks. That there is material enough for the
present study follows from Brown's spare-time activities and from the efforts of a remarkable
commander, Matthew Flinders, who deserves to be remembered as scientist as well as navigator.

The Voyager of Investigator, 1801-1805

The work of the expedition will be considered in three parts or episodes. The first is the voyage
from Investigators Australian landfall in December 1801 along the southern coast of the conti-
nent to Sydney, reached 9 May 1802. Two months later and joined by a tender, H.M.S. Lady
Nelson, for inshore work, she left Sydney on a run northwards inside the Great Barrier Reef to the
Torres Strait. The Lady Nelson proving hard to manage in open sea, Flinders ordered her return
to Sydney only to find while in the Gulf of Carpentaria his own ship was badly affected by rot. He
continued the survey as far as Arnhem Land but then had to abandon exploration and return to
Sydney by way of Timor and the southern route. The second leg was destined to be left incom-
plete. Hoping to get a replacement for Investigator, Flinders with most of his party left Sydney for
England in August 1803 on board H.M.S. Porpoise. The loss of Porpoise on Wreck Reef, off the
Queensland coast, Flinders' journey in an open boat to bring rescue from Sydney and, the
survivors safe on a merchantman bound for China, his own voyage home on a 25-ton colonial
vessel (H.M.S. Cumberland) which like him was detained by the French on Mauritius for 6
years — these are now popular history. For them, and much else, we have the guidance of the
commander's own account (Flinders, 1814). But Investigator did not rot away in Sydney harbour.
Two years after being abandoned, she managed a non-stop voyage to Liverpool, bringing home
Brown and Bauer who had been granted permission to continue their work until Flinders came
back or such time as they were ordered to return.

6 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

For any study of the expedition the prime source is A Voyage to Terra Australis, Flinders' last
work. According to Brown (Scott Polar Res. Inst., Cambridge. Lefroy Bequest MS 248/296/2,
Brown to Franklin, 25 Aug. 1814) it 'appeared a very few days after his [Flinders's] death 1 ; some
have claimed the book was published the day Flinders died, 19 July 1814. At least he was spared
knowledge that his widow would be required to make good the financial loss on publication of a
book issued with the authority of the Admiralty. It was not intended to be a popular piece. John
Franklin (1786-1847), Flinders's cousin and a midshipman on Investigator, recognized this in a
letter to Brown written from Portsmouth 9 June 1815 after a tour of duty in the West Indies:

... the work appears to be most Interesting to men of Science and Navigators — while the
casual reader will soon weary of the dry detail of his observations. He has related Facts and
circumstances with the utmost accuracy — and spared even that embellishment of colouring
which might make them more pleasing to the indifferent reader. His observations are re-
duced with the greatest nicety and precision ; they, together with his charts which certainly
are very superior, will I trust gain for him what he most desired, the character of a good
Navigator a man of perseverance and Science — . . . (Scott Polar Res. Inst., Cambridge.
Lefroy Bequest MS 248/296/5)

Franklin was right. Among the dry detail of Flinders's observations are many geological notes,
some no more than records of rock-types, others of far wider scientific interest. Franklin could
sympathize; he too developed geological interests (Woodward, 1907) and was destined to be an
ill-fated explorer.

By way of supplements to Flinders (1814), we have the manuscript diaries of Robert Brown and
Peter Good (both in the Botany Library, B.M. (N.H.), as well as manuscript catalogues of rock
collections and what remains of the collections themselves in the Department of Mineralogy
(B.M. (N.H.)). Not only are these the oldest expedition collections of rocks in the Museum 1
(Campbell Smith, 1969, p. 247), they are the oldest extant collection from the Australian region.
Their possible rivals in antiquity, the rocks gathered by Depuch and Bailly during the Baudin
expedition, cannot be traced. Enquiries in Paris at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, where once
they were housed, and at the Centre Oceanographique de Bretagne at Brest have proved unavail-
ing. The only souvenirs now are Bailly's manuscript catalogue (Mitchell Libr., Sydney. Copy in
Baudin Exped. Paps., B 1265) and a brief account by Leopold von Buch (1814) of his inspection
of the rocks in the Paris museum during 1810.

The Voyage to Sydney July 1801-May 1802

Calls at Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope on the way to Australia gave opportunities for
Brown and his colleagues to make shore excursions. Their unsuccessful attempt to reach the
highest point on Madeira, the volcanic remnant of Pico Ruivo, during which Allen nearly came
to grief, was nicely observed by Good (diary, 5-6 Aug. 1801) but, for the most part, the exercises
were less strenuous — and more botanical. Although these were places known to European sci-
ence, Brown found the Cape, in particular, a fascinating place; he was reluctant to leave before
satisfying his influential patrons. The Rt. Hon. Charles Greville (1749-1809), collector of min-
erals, plants and much else, for instance had instructed Brown on the eve of his departure from
Spithead to remember at the Cape he was ' not in the Land promised to Kew ' (BL Add MS 32439
ff 43-44) adding ' I conclude you all will have recollected many Desiderata, in which case write
me word[;] tell Bauer to do so also'. In a tantalizing passage, Greville hoped all 'will be plain
sailing' now that 'the awkwardness — which some Late measures might have occasiond' had
been 'rubbed off'.

1 According to Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum (8th ed., 1814, p. 54) rocks from King George's Sound
(presumably collected by Vancouver) were once on public display at Montagu House. No mention of them can be found
in issues of the Synopsis after reorganization by C. D. E. Konig (1774-1851) of the museum rock collections about 1817.
The samples presumably were lost then.

The Vancouver Island material suffered similarly, and material from Dusky Bay (New Zealand).

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5

Contact with Australia came early in December 1801 when Flinders put in at King George's
Sound to prepare for the southern survey. There and for some way eastwards they were in waters
examined by others. George Vancouver (1757-1798) had discovered and named the sound in
1791. His account (Vancouver, 1798, 1, pp 49-50) is full of interest; 'two or three sorts of granite',
slate, quartz, sandstone, 'marie' and 'coral' were found. He or his naturalist, Archibald Menzies
(1754-1842), even tested some of them with acid and the blowpipe. But it was the 'coral' that most
attracted Vancouver, as it did the party from Investigator and the French scientists with Baudin
who visited the place in February 1803. According to Vancouver, the branching 'coral' exposed
in white calcareous sand and sandstone on the tops of prominences like Bald Head was clear
evidence that the land had only recently emerged from the sea. It was taken up enthusiastically by
the French (Peron, 1804) and provided an example for Cuvier (1825, 1, p. 17) in support of his
model of catastrophic operations in the geological past. Darwin (1844, pp 144-148) also quoted
Peron with approval.

Flinders (1814, 1, p. 63) accepted Vancouver's interpretation that the branching material was
coral, adding merely his own description. Good (diary, 20 Dec.) likewise thought it coral. Brown
(diary, 20 Dec), however, took a more critical interest. He talks of ' roots of trees petrified ' and
comments on the thickness and branching of the calcareous bodies. ' Can these branches be
coral[?] ' he asked, adding the observation that ' their being so frequently prostrate and all traces
of their original structure being obliterated] are arguments against this'. But, Brown persisted, if
wood how was it petrified, at the bottom of the sea? After closer examination failed to discover
signs of woody structure, Brown left the matter; he was still dubious but prepared to call the
material coral. If now we recognize that corals do not inhabit such southern waters and that the
'coral' at King George's Sound is of concretionary origin, there is nothing with which to
reproach Brown. His careful intelligence gave a hopeful start to the expedition's geological work.
Nearly a year later, when at Sweer's Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria, he had no trouble
distinguishing concretionary pseudo-coralline material from real coral (see p. 19).

From King George's Sound, Investigator moved on to the Archipelago of the Recherche,
anchoring in Lucky Bay, east of Esperance Bay. Flinders simply noted the place on his working
charts as Bay I and this notation is followed by the diarists. Burbidge (1956) provides a key
correlating the survey notation with names bestowed later. At Lucky Bay, Flinders was on new
ground though the archipelago had been visited by a French expedition led by J.-A. R. Bruny
D'Entrecasteaux (1739-1793) in December 1792. The naturalist J.- J. H. de Labillardiere (1755-
1834) noted the occurrence on the islands of the archipelago of white calcareous sand and
sandstone lying over granitic rocks (Labillardiere, 1800, 1, pp 449-450). It repeated the pattern
seen at King George's Sound and, as Flinders and Brown were to find as they went eastwards,
characterized much of the southern coast. Flinders (1814, 1, p. 89) thought it ' may perhaps aflford
some light to the geologist' and later (1, pp 96-97) began to wonder what sort of country ('fiat,
sandy plains or water'?) lay behind the remarkable cliffs of horizontal calcareous strata.

Not until Investigator reached Bay IX (Memory Cove, South Australia) is there much sign of
rocks other than granitic types and the coastal limestone. Brown's first sample from Memory
Cove he described as 'Sienites: vulgans est magnam partem terrae prope Memory Cove ef-
format' in his catalogue. There follow specimens of vein rocks in the so-called syenite but finally
(No. 5) comes something familiar: ' Particuli sphaeroidalis ferruginose in lapide arenaceo-
calcareo. frequentes praecipice in collo supra Memory Cove.' For about six weeks at this stage,
Brown made all his catalogue notes in Latin. Flinders (1814, 1, p. 140) added his remarks on the
rocks at Memory Cove and it is interesting to notice how commonly his rock-names differ from
those used by Brown. There are few signs of collusion. Indeed, Flinders employed a wider range
of terms than Brown and, as he wrote his book more than ten years after making the observations
and without the benefit of specimens one assumes his diagnoses, like Brown's, were made on the
ground. Flinders clearly had a good working knowledge of lithology. Without the advantages of
instruction by Walker and Hawkins, Flinders showed a surer touch in such matters than Brown.
So often Brown's catalogue entries are no more than vague records of localities; that was all
Banks (letter to Brown, 15 June 1801) expected.

The stop at Inlet XII (head of Spencer Gulf, South Australia) brought an opportunity to

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801 5 9

explore away from the sea. By now the great cliffs of coastal limestone were far behind and the
country more accessible. So, while Flinders continued his boat-work, Brown took his party
inland. As usual, the main concern was botany but the geological situation should have provided
interest; it was different from that hitherto. On this excursion the party crossed a terrain com-
posed chiefly of slates to gain the summit of what Flinders was to call Mt Brown, the highest
point reached during the survey voyages. Only two specimens of rocks, one from the mountain,
were taken and that despite the fact Brown saw (diary, 10 March) veins 'of a metallic substance
resembling Molybdama or black lead'. Banks had given instructions about such things; Allen
should have been directed to gather a sample, at least.

The micaceous schists of Kangaroo Island also failed to divert Brown. Two specimens sufficed
for the whole island. From a fairly ambitious start (Brown listed 22 items in his collection from
King George's Sound), rock-collecting had become practically an otiose activity. The three
anchorages between Kangaroo Island and Sydney yielded no rocks at all. Flinders, however,
continued to add geological notes to his record, perhaps also enlarging his own collection. That
he did collect rocks follows from statements regarding the wreck of the Porpoise: 'my little
collection in mineralogy and conchology was much defaced, and one half lost ' (Flinders, 1814, 2,
p. 311). Later, 'a cask containing what had been saved of my specimens of mineralogy and
conchology was taken on board ' the Cumberland (Flinders, 1 8 14, 2, p. 329), only to be confiscated
at Mauritius. The collection was never returned to him (Flinders, 1814, 2, p. 484). We assume the
references to his collection serve to distinguish it from that made by Brown and his assistants.

Of Brown's collection from this part of the voyage nothing remains except his manuscript
catalogue (Mineralogy Library, BM (NH)) listing some 65 or 70 specimens from 11 of the 18
anchorages made. It seems probable these were lost with the Porpoise. With them presumably
were seven samples of coal, porphyry, granite and 'argillaceous rock' from the bed of the
Hawkesbury River about its confluence with the Grose River in New South Wales and another
three specimens from the 'rivulet behind government house' at Parramatta, by-products of
botanical excursions from Sydney while Investigator was being prepared for the second stage of
its voyage.

Depuch and Bailly, the mineralogists attached to the Baudin expedition, did rather better
during their visit to Sydney in the following year(Peron and Freycinet, 1816); it would have been
surprising if they had not. Beside collecting specimens, Depuch and Bailly began the more
challenging business of discovering geological relations. They saw, for instance, that a succession
of shales with fossil ' ferns ' lay over sandstones at Parramatta and suggested a bore-hole there
would intersect at depth the coal known to lie below sandstones in coastal exposures north and
south of Sydney. Nothing could have demonstrated more clearly the limits to Banksian vision.
Trained mineralogists attached to a marine surveying expedition could make discoveries of
importance both practical and scientific, just as Flinders and others had argued. A 'practical
miner ' was no answer.

Writing to Banks from Sydney 30 May 1802 {HR NSW, 4, pp 776-779), Brown reported how
loyally he had followed instructions: 'In mineralogy, I have hitherto collected what merely
presented itself. To his friend, Banks's librarian Jonas Dryander (1748-1810) went the message
'In mineralogy we have extremely little variety' (HR NSW, 4, pp 773-775). The record of
Flinders is enough to prove otherwise. At King George's Sound, Brown had tried to cover the
several branches of natural history — and performed creditably. The later stops, of more limited
duration, were largely given over to satisfying the interests of botany.

The Voyage to Arnhem Land and Return to Sydney July 1802-June 1803

In 1799 Flinders had gone as far north from Sydney as Moreton Bay and though he missed the
entrance to the river on which the present city of Brisbane stands he did chart the coast and
recognize the extinct volcanic character of the Glasshouse Mountains (Flinders, 1814, 1, p. cxcvi).
Now he proposed to examine the coast northwards from Moreton Bay, a coast fringed by the
coral reef system that made it dangerous to mariners. The reef had nearly proved Captain Cook's
undoing in 1770; in little more than a year Flinders was to be wrecked on it.

10 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

Work on the second leg of the expedition followed the pattern established during the voyage to
Sydney. Occasionally, Brown or others of his party would accompany Flinders in the boat but
more often they collected as a distinct group or as individuals. Flinders, Brown and Good
continued to keep journals; for this part of the voyage they have an added importance. As before,
they serve to illuminate obscurities in Brown's catalogue of rocks (or, as he called them this time,
fossils — a word which in the general sense of things dug up was already becoming old-fashioned)
but the illumination is more necessary here because part of the collection still exists. There are, in
fact, two lists or catalogues of rocks relating to this part of the voyage: Brown's manuscript
covering the period July 1802-April 1803 and another entitled Minerals collected on the East
Coast of New South Wales August 5-10 1802. Both are now in the Mineralogy Library, BM (NH).
Edwards (1976, p. 401) refers to this second document as 'probably in the hand of the miner,
Milnes'. Miss Edwards has confused Milnes with Allen. We believe the hand is not that of John
Allen and incline to a view (with which Miss Edwards disagrees) that the author was Peter Good.
No specimens to match that list have been found.

Roughly half the samples noted by Brown remain in the collections of the Department of
Mineralogy, BM (NH). As all derive from the second leg of the Investigator expedition and
collectively form a unique source in the history of Australian geology, we here supply a transcript
of Brown's catalogue as a guide to the geological effort at this stage. Annotations relating actual
specimens to entries in the catalogue, as well as notes on the petrography of the samples, their
likely collecting-localities and stratigraphical positions, are interspersed. However, before pre-
senting this document it is necessary to offer some explanatory remarks, not least because
striking differences will be found between the present statement and that given recently by one of
us (DTM) in Edwards (1976, pp 399-401). Close examination of the manuscript catalogue, the
original paper labels, museum register and the specimens, has brought to light considerable
errors in registration, most of them due to a misreading of labels and the failure of one museum
department to communicate with another, some to careless observation of the specimens. The
experience provides an object lesson for curators of historic collections. The keys to the problem
lie in the manner of treatment, taking treatment as a word subsuming neglect.

Leaving aside the circumstances whereby the collection reached England, matters to which we
attend later in this study, it is noted that the rocks went to the British Museum at Montagu
House in 1811, a gift from the Admiralty. They were not registered until 1894-5 (indeed,
registration of rocks and minerals did not begin until 1837). During the intervening years, this
collection like the rest of the Museum's rock collections suffered disturbance, damage and loss.
Campbell Smith (1969, p. 258) refers to damage, and worse, at Montagu House in the 1820s.
There was more disturbance when Montagu House was replaced by Smirke's museum building
and then in 1880 came the final move from Bloomsbury to South Kensington. Brown himself
raided the collection, probably near the beginning of 1826, giving to W. H. Fitton (1780-1861)
pieces for his study of rocks from northern Australia (King, 1826, 2, pp 566-629). In the preface to
his book, King mentions that Fitton received the samples after other parts of the natural history
contributions had been printed. The samples used by Fitton eventually passed to the museum of
the Geological Society of London. In 1911 they returned to the British Museum; we say returned
advisedly, for they were broken from specimens already there.

With such casual care it is wonder enough that any part of the collection remains but the
business of registration was no less strange. The rocks must have come to the museum with only
the paper labels. Brown did not hand over his manuscript catalogue. It passed, presumably after
his death, into the possession of the Department of Botany and remained there until 1906 when it
came to the Department of Mineralogy. The cataloguer in the 1890's, ignorant of this document,
meanwhile had registered the rocks on the basis of what he could make of the labels. He was
unaware too of the notation used by Flinders at the time of the survey. Thus an inscription like
Carpentaria Island s, the first word indicating the section of the voyage, became in the register
Carpentaria Island — a splendid geographical fiction that would unite all the scattered islands
visited by Flinders in the Gulf of Carpentaria. We believe the rocks are now restored to order,
171 years after they were donated by the Admiralty.

Brown's catalogue fills 40 pages of a leather-covered notebook (11 x 18 cm) containing 30

11

12 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

sewn leaves; it has been transferred recently (1977) from the files of the Rock Collection to the
Mineralogy Library, BM (NH). In the following text, Brown's spellings and erratic punctuation
are preserved though, for the sake of economy, his spacings of lines are not. The original text is
rendered in italics; our insertions stand within brackets. From time to time, Brown added minor
notes to the document. They are indicated in our edition; there should be no difficulty dis-
tinguishing those added after Flinders converted his geographical symbols into normal place
names from those connected with Fitton's interest.

An annotated transcript of Robert Brown's catalogue of rocks collected August 1802-April 1803

Catalogue of Fossils collected on the East Coast of New Holland [blank] space [blank] 1802, also
the Gulf of Carpentaria Prince of Wales' Islands

Sandy Cape Herveys Bay Lat .-[blank] Long: [blank]
July 31-1802

[space left blank]
Port No I [Port Curtis] Lat : [blank] Long : [blank]
Aug' 5-8 1802

No I Red ochre, used by the Natives for painting their bodies &c taken out of one of their
Canoes
[No specimen]

No II Yellow Ochre — us'd by the Natives for painting their bodies, &c taken from one of their
Canoes
[No specimen]

No III forming a small rounded hill about a mile from the beach opposite to the anchorage
[BM 75774 original label : East Coast Port I No 3 16) Refs : Flinders, 2, 1 5 ff; Brown
and Good diaries.

A fine-grained grey quartzite (a recrystallized quartz greywacke), distinctly jointed and
superficially iron-stained, the sample appears to have been collected just north of the
present Southend, at the SE extremity of Curtis Island (Fig. 2, position marked a). The
rock may be assigned to the Palaeozoic Shoalwater Formation (Sheet SF 56-13, Rock-
hampton, Queensland, 1 : 250000 geological series). A small specimen registered as BM
75786 (Northumberland Islands, No 2) is, in fact, a fragment broken from BM 75774; they
are now together at this latter position. During the stay at Port Curtis, Brown landed only
on what was then thought to be the mainland (Curtis Island); Good, and probably Allen,
visited Facing Island twice. Flinders ventured further into the port and also made geologi-
cal observations (Flinders, 2, 20).]

No I V forming rocks on the shore about a mile & half from the anchorage Schistus
[No specimen]

No V Pumice Stone, found thrown on the beach, in considerable abundance that side of Facing
Island next the anchorage
[No specimen]

No VI Small flat rocks in facing island — in one place only :
[No specimen]

No VII Breccia forming small rocks covered at high water in Facing Island —
[No specimen]

No VIII Calcareous sandstone about | mile from the beach end of Facing Island; small
rocks scatterd on the surface.
[No specimen]

Keppel Bay Aug 1 9th-16th—1802

No I Petrosilex, forming rocks on the shore opposite to the anchorage

[No specimen]
No II Petrosilex ( ?) with the particles of Quartz ( ?) on the surface, on the hill about half a

mile from the beach opposite to the anchorage

[No specimen]

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 13

No III Quartz, on the surface, sides of the hill about half a mile from the beach opposite to the

anchorage

[BM 75775 original label : Keppel Bay No 3 22) Refs : Flinders, 2, 22 ff; Brown and

Good diaries

A ferruginous chert with a vein of milky quartz, the sample was probably collected near

Dinky Point of present maps. Assigned to the Palaeozoic Wandilla Formation (Sheet SF

56-13).]
No IV Rocks cover d at high water on the beach opposite to the anchorage consequently

inferior to the Petrosilex (No I)

[The sample with label (not original) Keppel Bay No I V (No 23) and registered as

BM 75766 — Quartz, Keppel Bay, E. Coast, Australia — is, in fact, a fragment broken from

BM 75819 (q.v.— p. 27). Keppel Bay No IV cannot be found.]

Port II [Port Clinton, Port Bowen of Flinders] Aug' 21-22—1802
No I Rock forming the two Mountains we ascended on 21 & 22 d

[BM 758 1 6 original label : Port 2 No 1 65) Refs : Flinders, 2, 36 ff; Brown and Good

diaries. Registered as a quartz felsite, the material consists of phenocrysts of resorbed

quartz and two feldspar phases (both much decomposed) in a matrix of devitrified welded

glass shards; the rock is a rhyodacitic ignimbrite from the Peninsula Range Volcanics

(Permian-Cretaceous). The locality (Fig. 2, letter b) is just north of Perforated Point (Sheet

SF 56-9, Port Clinton, Queensland, 1 : 250000 series).]
No II forming the rock at the second beach of the [blank] side of the Port, where we landed the

21st

[No specimen]
No III forming the rock at the first small beach where the ship watered

[No specimen; for a sketch of this place see Flinders, Atlas pi XV (Sic — but in fact XVIII),

sheet 2, profile No 9]
No IV In a vein about 14 feet wide forming the bottom of the Gully immediately behind the

beach. Where the ship watefd. contained in No III

[No specimen]
No V Variety of No 1 or 2,

[No specimen]

Harveys Islands, between Island Head & Cape Townshend consist of the same rock as No I II,
III, of Port II, in one place columnar, columns incliri'd, not jointed, seen at a distance [cf.
Brown diary (25 Aug.)]

Shoal Bay Passage [Strong Tide Passage of Flinders and modern maps]
Aug' 26 1802

No I forming the rock at the bottom of the high mountain which we ascended

[BM 75790 original label : Shoal Water Bay Passage Aug 26, 1802 No 1 77) Refs :
Flinders, 2, 40 ff; Brown and Good diaries.

Registered as a quartz porphyry, the rock is a rhyolitic ignimbrite far more devitrified
than BM 75816. Its similarity to rocks observed at Port II (Port Clinton) was noted by
Brown in his diary; all are now placed in the Peninsula Range Volcanics (Sheet SF 56-9).
The collecting locality is at the northern foot of Mt Westall (Fig. 2, letter c), the highest
[hill] we had been on in New Holland except one according to Good.]

No II forming the summit of the high mountain which we ascended
[No specimen]

Cape Townshend Island Aug' 28 th 1802

No I Micaceous schistus, with thin veins of Quartz, forming the base of the Island, as far as seen

[No specimen]
No II Differing from (No I) in being destitute of quartz [i.e. vein quartz]

[BM 75777 original label : Cape Townshend Islands No 2 6) Refs : Flinders, 2, 44 ;

Brown diary.

14 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

This grey fine-grained quartz-sericite schist, a low-grade metamorphic representative of
the Shoalwater Formation, appears to have been collected at the SE corner of the island
(Sheet 56-9)— Fig. 2, letter d.

The rock composing this island is very different from that of the opposite main (Brown diary
28 Aug.).]

Shoal Bay South Shore Aug' 30—1802

No I In the bed of the Rivulet proceeding from the Mountains; about 2 miles from the beach
[BM 75789 original label: Shoal Water Bay South Shore in the bed of the rivulet about 2
miles from the beach 82) Refs : Brown and Good diaries.

Registered as a quartz porphyry, the rock is more like a quartz-bearing microdiorite
porphyritic in plagioclase and containing grains of clinopyroxene infested with green
amphibole. Intrusive bodies mapped as granodiorite in the Normanby Range (Sheet SF
56-9) seem a likely source. According to Brown's diary the party landed (near the present
Sabina Point) and moved inland to the SW some 3 miles before reaching a small rivulet
then nearly dry in many places but at certain seasons must be {from the breadth of its bed
(36 or 40 feet) the quantity & size of the water worn stones in it & the height of its alluvial
banks} very considerable ...In the bed of the Rivulet we found fragments of Granite,
Porphyry & Whinstone. The locality may be identified as in Rocky Creek, about 3 miles
SW of Sabina Point (Fig. 2, letter e).]

No II with the former ;
[No specimen]

No III Whin Stone, water worn fragments, bed of the Rivulet, with the former —

[BM 75788 original label : Shoal W[ater] Bay No 3 78) . The sample is part of a
rounded cobble of dark, fine-grained quartz greywacke containing some volcanic detritus.
It was probably derived from the Shoalwater Formation (Fig. 2, letter e).]

No IV Variety of No III ; same situation
[No specimen]

No V forming low rocks, coverd at high water, on the shore where we landed

[BM 75787 original label : Shoal W. Bay No 5 79) Refs : Brown and Good diaries.
The rock consists of abundant subhedral feldspar (mainly plagioclase) and less common
resorbed quartz grains in a granular interstitial matrix; it is a dacitic crystal tuff. On Sheet
SF 56-9, the area about Sabina Point (Fig. 2, letter g) has the shading for superficial
Tertiary-Quaternary deposits but Brown's comments imply the rock collected was in situ.
Perhaps volcanic materials like those known to form the Double Mountain Volcanics
south of Sabina Point extend to the coast in places.]

No VI In the Bank of the Rivulet with Nos I-IV
[No specimen]

Shoal Bay Sep r 3 d 1802

No I Top of the Peaked hill, the greater part of the hill consists of this stone, & its variety No II
[and added in pencil] German Basalt [Flinders, 2, 48-49, makes it clear this Peaked hill is
his Pine Mount. Brown (diary) thought the Hill consists of a fine grain' d porphyry gradu-
ating I believe into whin stone; Flinders (2, 50) termed it the greenstone of the German
mineralogists. The specimens have not been found.]

No III Petrosilex sporadic in micaceous schistus of the same kind to that composing Cape
Townshend Island, in the dry bed of a rivulet in the plain between our landing place & the
bottom of the peaked hill
[No specimen]

Thirsty Sound, entrance East side — Sep r 5 th 1802

No I Low point near the base of the round hill — opposite to the anchorage —

[BM 75797 original label : Thirsty Sound entrance, east side No 1 Refs : Flinders, 2, 53

ff; Brown and Good diaries.

Under the microscope this rock, registered as a pyroxene granodiorite, is seen to consist of

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 15

albite, chlorite, epidote and calcite. There is a slight schistosity and traces of a relict
basaltic (?) texture suggest the material is a metamorphosed basic igneous product. The
source of the rock is uncertain. Flinders and the two diarists agree that on 5 Sep. all the
' scientists ' except Bauer worked on the mainland. Perhaps the sample (Fig. 2, letter h) is
from a flow or intrusive body in the Devonian terrain SE of Arthur Point (Sheet SF 55-12,
St Lawrence, Queensland, 1 : 250 000 series).]

No II superincumbent on No I

[BM 75796 original label : Thirsty Sound No 2 98)

Registered as a weathered sedimentary rock, this whitish material (where not iron-stained)
is, in fact, a fine-grained sericite-quartz schist. The quartz occurs as grains of various
shapes and sizes, some indeed is of late-growth related to veining but other grains seem to
be blastophenocrysts. That being so, the original rock was probably an acid volcanic
product like rhyolite or rhyolitic tuff. Such materials are reported in the Devonian suc-
cession SE of Arthur Point (Fig. 2, letter h).

No III Top of the round hill opposite to the anchorage —
[No specimen]

Pier head No I V — Porphyry, graduating in some places into trap ( ?) composing the round hill,
caWd Pierhead on this hill the magnet was considerably affected,
[No specimen]

B Island in the offing about 3 leagues from our anchorage in the entrance of Thirsty Sound —
No V, The common rock on the shore of the Island C. Flinders

[BM 75792 original label : Island near the entrance of Thirsty Sound No 5 91) Ref :
Flinders, 2, 55-56.

A diorite with much-altered subhedral plagioclase, uralitized hornblende, chloritized bio-
tite and interstitial quartz, the sample (collected by Flinders) is veined by quartz and
epidote. On 6 Sep. Flinders and Westall visited what were called the 6th, 7th and 8th
Northumberland Islands. Island B of Brown is the 7th island (now Tynemouth Island) —
Sheet SF 56-19 where it is mapped as gabbro or diorite (Fig. 2, letter k).]

Broad Sound Sep r 9th— 1802

West Peakd Hill— [West Hill Island of Sheet SF 55-8, Mackay, Queensland, 1 : 250000
series]

No I & II forming the hill & the rocks along the shore II only on the shore, the rock divided
into cubes or trapeziums of different sizes, by thinish laminae of brown stone in other respects
nearly the same as that composing the cube or body of the rock,

[BM 75780 original label : Broad Sound, West peaked hill No 1 10) Refs : Flinders, 2,
60; Brown diary.

Termed a quartz-hornblende microgranite in the BM (NH) register, this greenish-grey
rock consists principally of microscopic laths of saussuritized plagioclase mantled by
clear, granular quartz; green amphibole and chlorite are also present. The rock appears to
be an altered andesite or microdiorite. On the Mackay geological sheet the island (Fig. 2,
letter m) is shown as composed of Tertiary volcanic material.
BM 75782 original label : Broad Sound, West Peaked Hill No 2 11)
The laminae of brown stone mentioned by Brown are ferruginous products, due to wea-
thering, along joint planes. In his diary, Brown termed the rock a species of trap? and gave
details of the variety of jointing. Flinders (2, 60) considered the rock was not unlike that of
Pier Head ; but it had a more basaltic appearance (Fig. 2 letter m).]

Broad Sound Low Island — [? Avoid Island] Sep r 10 1802

No I Rock divided in the same manner as No II of last anchorage viz' west Peaked hill The
specimen shews the common size of the division with its walls
[No specimen]

16 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

Broad sound — Upper head — Sep r — 12 1802

No I forming the hill calld in the chart Upper head the low rocks on the shore abreast of the
anchorage, where the tents were pitchd Sep r 26 —

[BM 75779 original label : Broad Sound, Upper Head No 1 9) Refs : Flinders, 2, 7 1 ;
Brown diary.

A microcline-rich leucogranite with both muscovite and biotite, the rock has a re-
markably fresh appearance. Flinders's Upper Head appears to be Charon Point (Fig. 2,
letter n) on Sheet SF 55-12, St Lawrence, where the vicinity is shown as occupied by the
Lower Permian Carmila Beds. Yet Brown's note suggests granite is in situ there and
Flinders stated that Upper Head consists of granite.]

No 2 forming small rocks by the side of aflat frequently overflowed by the tide, near upper head,
towards the nearest fresh water —
[No specimen]

No 111 Sep r 15 — 1802 Schistus forming strata dipping more or less, by the side of a rivulet
near the bottom of the first chain of hills about 3 miles from Upper head —
[No specimen remains. Brown (diary, 18 Sep.) reported that on 15 September Good and
Allen walked to the nearest range of hills and the stone which according to M r Allen
composes the hill they ascended is different from any we had hitherto seen. Good (diary, 1 5
Sep.) merely observed: The Stones of this part are various Granite Porphyry & Schistus.]

No IV Sep r 26 — 1802 Dry Bed of the rivulet near the side of the thicket about a mile from
Upper head towards the shore of the smaller inlet
[No specimen]

No V Sep r 26 — 1802 With No IV, both forming a considerable proportion of the stones in the
bed of the rivulet

[BM 7578 1 original label : Broad Sound Upper head No 5 12) Refs : Brown and
Good diaries (the appropriate entry for Brown is dated 27 Sep. — at this period his chrono-
logy is one day ahead of Good's and Flinders').

Close examination of this light-coloured rock, apparently porphyritic in two feldspars and
quartz, shows it to contain volcanic rock fragments which indicate a pyroclastic origin.
The felsic matrix has some layered character but is affected by a feeble metamorphism that
has generated sericite and epidote. A likely source is the Lower Permian Carmila Beds
which are said to be rich in acid volcanic material (Sheet SF 55-12). The collecting-locality
(Fig. 2, letter p) for this rhyodacite tuff was in a tributary of the Styx River, a few miles S of
Charon Point.]

Broad Sound — Inner entrance of Thirsty Sound Sep r [blank] 1802

No VI Sep r [20] Forming the greater part of the very small Island [blank] side of the inner
entrance of thirsty Sound

[BM 75794 original label : Thirsty Sound inner entrance No 6 93) Refs : Flinders, 2,
67; Brown diary (21 Sep.); Good diary (20 Sep.). The very small island is identified as one
of the Mangrove Islands (Sheet SF 55-12) at the southern end of the group known as Long
Island. The sample, cream to pink in colour, is deeply weathered. An array of irregular
fractures is outlined by accumulations of secondary iron-oxides. Relict textures suggest
the rock was of acid volcanic origin (probably pyroclastic) though all feldspar has been
replaced by clay minerals. Sheet ST 55-12 gives no clue about this sample for the area
about Mangrove Islands (Fig. 2, letter q) is mapped as Quaternary alluvium. This and the
next two specimens, if true to label, indicate older strata crop out in the area.]

No VII Sep r [20] With the former {No VI} forming small rocks on the shore
[BM 75795 original label: Thirsty Sound inner entrance No 7 94)
A ferruginous material registered as an ironstone nodule, it seems more like a rounded
cobble of a pisolite conglomerate with limonitic cement. Lateritic gravels are known in the
vicinity (Sheet SF 55-12)— Fig. 2, letter g.]

No VIII Sep r [20] picked up on the inner shore of the same Island —

[BM 75793 original label : Inner entrance of Thirsty Sound No 8 92)

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 17

A dark-grey banded siliceous mudstone, its rodded character suggests the rock belongs to
some deformed terrain such as may be presented by the older Palaeozoic units recognized
in the Thirsty Sound area (Sheet SF 55-12), e.g. on the mainland opposite. (Fig. 2, letter

q)-]

No IX Sep r [21] on a small peninsula of the main intersected by mangroves, forming rocks on
the shore in some places low in other places upwards of 20 or 30 feet high, in various degrees
of induration, the higher generally softer & almost wholly a deep red
[No specimen]

No X Forming strata a few feet in thickness near the top of a bank in the peninsula with No IX
[BM 75791 original label: Thirsty Sound inner entrance No 10 90) Refs: Flinders, 2,
67 ff; Brown diary (22 Sept.); Good diary (21 Sept.)

Brown thought this place remarkable for its blood red cliffs an island; Good calls it the
main. According to Brown, the cliffs we found to be composed of the same stone as the island
on which we landed yesterday but more strongly & uniformly impregnated with iron.
The present sample, a light-brown banded mudstone, is neither particularly like those
from the last locality nor especially ferruginous; it may resemble the Lower Permian
sediments mapped on Quail Island (Sheet SF 55-12). The collecting-locality was on or
near Island Bluff (Fig. 2, letter t).]

Broad Sound near its head

No XI forming the hill from which C. Flinders took his bearings. The stone slightly magnetic;
C. Flinders supposed his needle was considerably affected on this hill [and added in pencil]
Greenstone D r Fitton

[BM 75778 original label: Broad Sound near its head No XI 8) Refs: Flinders, 2, 66;
Brown diary (15 Sep.).

The sample is a hypersthene gabbro with remarkably fresh calcic plagioclase (bytownite-
labradorite) and mantles of pale brown hornblende on pyroxene grains. From Flinders'
map the locality is found to be The Brothers, mapped on Sheet SF 55-9 as composed of
gabbro/diorite. Both Flinders and Brown called the rock a granite (Fig. 2, letter u).]

Northumberland Islands

No I Small Pine Island Sep r 30 [Percy Isles, fig. 1.]

[BM 75785 original label: Northumberland Isles No 1 71) Refs: Flinders, 2, 78ff;
Brown diary (1 Oct. ( = 30 Sep.)); Good diary (30 Sep.).

Although registered as a hematite-stained limestone, the rock is a volcanic agglomerate
with a distinct reddish-brown band veined by calcite. It was collected on one of the two
rocky Pine Islets, adjacent to No 2 Percy Island on Flinders' map; Sheet SF 56-5, Percy
Isles, Queensland, 1 : 250 000 series, is not available. Passing references to the Percy Isles
(J. geol. Soc. Austr., 7, 1960, pp 144 & 222) indicate a volcanic character and Palaeozoic
(?Devonian) age. Flinders (2, 80) made geological observations on these islands; his
comment that the most abundant rock was a connected mass of different substances, held
together by a hard, dark-coloured cement may well refer to material like the present
sample.]

No II found loose forming part of the rocks at the extremity of the small pine Island towards the
anchorage

[The specimen registered as BM 75786 and accompanied by original label: Northumber-
land Isles No 2 72) is a small piece of quartzite which fits exactly on the side of BM
75774 from Port Curtis. The real Northumberland Isles No 2 cannot be found.]

No III forming the Projecting rock top of the ridge; abreast of the first anchorage about a mile
from the beach at which we watefd
[No specimen]

No I V forming considerable rocks in & near the gully which contained water & at the bottom of
which the ship water d — Ocf 1 — 1802

[BM 75783 original label : Cumberland Island Oct 1 1802 No 4 68)
Catalogue entry and original label do not agree. The Cumberland Islands were not

18 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

sighted until 15 Oct. and only three samples taken there are noted (see below). Brown
corrected the error in his diary on 1 October, a day he and Good worked on board ship.
The date on the label presumably relates to the day before, when Brown was on Flinders'
Percy Island No 2. Our belief that the sample came from this island (in fact, from its
western side) is supported by the agglomeratic character of BM 75783 (cf. BM 75785).
Registered as an ignimbrite, BM 75783 is a greenish agglomerate rich in porphyritic dacite
(?) fragments.]
No V forming rocks near No I V
[No specimen]

Cumberland Islands Ocf 16 — 1802

Island I

No I forming the rocks on the shore near the landing place (old chart) the whin stone in greater
proportion
[No specimen]

No II forming rocks near the former towards steep cliffy extremity of the Island —
[No specimen]

No III Top of the island loose fragments on the surface but the rocks consisting of the same
stone

[BM 75784 original label: Cumberland Islands No 3 70) Fig. 1. Refs: Flinders, 2, 94;
Brown diary (16 Oct.).

A greenish-grey rock, registered as a chlorite-biotite dacite, it is more like an altered
biotite-bearing quartz microdiorite, porphyritic in plagioclase. The Island on that side we
landed is compos d of Granite & [space] primitive whin stone of this last the steep cliffs at the
extremity of the island probably consist (Brown diary).

As only one of the Cumberland Islands seems to have been visited, Brown's Island I must
be that denoted 1 2 on Flinders' working chart and later named Calder Island. This place is
mapped as consisting of leucocratic alkali granite on Sheet SF 55-4, Proserpine, Queens-
land, 1 : 250 000 series.]

Torres' Strait Low Island d Lat [blank] Long : [blank]
Ocf 30—1802

Composed of calcareous grit with small fragments of coral & shells rarely entire shells spec

marked A

[BM 75798 original label : Torres Strait Low Island 7) Refs : Flinders, 2, 1 14 ff;

Brown diary (30 Oct.)

Low Island, about half a mile in circumference, at the surface composed of coral grit congluti-

nated . . . of a light ash colour sometimes containing shells (Brown diary). The sample is,

indeed, a lithified calcareous grit, though it lacks the mark A. Brown's catalogue entry

resolves a difficulty (Burbidge, 1956, p. 232) concerning identification of the island; Low

Island d is Halfway Island of modern maps. Fig. 1.]

Prince of Wales' Islands Island e [Good's Island of Flinders, Fig. 3]

No I Composes the greater part of the hills & rocks examined with some slight variation of
grain

[No specimen]
No II Weather worn specimen of No I &[?] a small specimen of Mountain Green found
encrusting wet rocks

[No specimens. Flinders (2, 120) noted streaks of verdegrease, as if the cliffs above had
contained copper ore at one place on Good's Island. Brown (diary, 2 Nov.) wrote of a very
thin drusy-covering of Green oxyde of copper on some rocks in a cave near the shore.]

Gulf of Carpentaria [Fig. 3]
Coen River [6 November]
Calcareous sand stone

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5

19

J o

ARAFURA SEA

Goods Id

lOOKm
lOOmiles

Fig. 3 The Gulf of Carpentaria, including some of the collecting localities.
December 1802-March 1803.

Island a (Sweers , Island Flinders) [ — added later] Lat [blank] Long [blank]
Nov r 17 1802

No I covering thickly the small hills opposite to the ship rugged & so thickly-set- that walking in
many places was rendered extremely difficult seldom rising to more than afoot in height
amorphous ragged — no distinct ramifications

[BM 75806 and 1911, 1545(1). original label— with 75806: Carpentaria Island a No 1
41) Refs : Flinders, 2, 1 34 ; Brown and Good diaries.
The obscure remarks in the catalogue are clarified in Brown's diary:
The island itself is undoubtedly of very recent formation the hill abreast the ship about
perhaps 50 or 60 feet above sea level was covered with an arenaceo-calcareous stone in such a
manner as to give at first sight an idea of coral in its natural position, no traces however of
organization was observable in it. The material was once a sand, of quartz, organic and
lithic grains. It is cemented by calcite, especially so adjacent to open channel-ways or
pipes — these, on eroded surfaces, no doubt contribute the pseudo-coralline character. The

20 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

two samples have been broken from the same original specimen. Collected at the S end of

the island, the material represents what is mapped as Quaternary calcarenite, shelly

quartzose sand on Sheet SE 54-6, Burketown, Queensland, 1 : 250000 series.]
No I Ice Forming low shelving rocks in several parts of the Island

[No specimen]
No II (I differs from No I Ice in being softer — with cc

[No specimen]
No Ily differs in having larger water worn pebbles

[No specimen]
No III Forming a steep bank about 10 feet high near the beach abreast of the anchorage

[No specimen]
No IV Forming low rocks covered at high water

[No specimen]
No V scatter'd on the surface in various parts of the island

[No specimen]

Island b /Bentinck Island/ [ — added later]
Noxf 18—1802

No I forming low flat rocks containg iron stone

[BM 75808 original label: Carpentaria Island b No 1 46) Refs: Flinders, 2, 136;

Brown diary.

A yellowish-brown quartz sandstone probably from the Lower Cretaceous Normanton

Formation, this material seems to have been encountered also on nearby Sweer's Island

(Brown diary). Only a piece ofTalkf?) . . .cut apparently by a sharp instrument provided

mineral variety for Brown on Bentinck Island. Sheet SE 54-6.]
No II contained in No I

[BM 75807 original label: Carpentaria Island b No II

The sample is part of a ferruginous (limonitic) concretion in sandstone, presumably of the

Normanton Formation.]
No III a considerable distance from the beach, loose on the surface of various sizes

[BM 75810 and BM 191 1, 1545(3) original label (with 75810): Carpentaria Island b No

3 48)

Registered as an ironstone, the sample appears to be a lateritized sand crudely pisolitic in

character. It is probably from a fossil soil on the Cretaceous sandstone.]
No IV Low flat rocks on the shore

[No specimen]
No V near No I V forming similar rocks on the surface

[No specimen]
No VI forming low flat rocks on the shore

[No specimen]

Island c (Allen's Island) [ — added later]
composition the same as a and b

Island f = /Turtle Island /(Bountiful Islands) [ — added later]
Dec':— [3-4] 1802

No I On the beach in blocks —

[No specimen]
No II In large blocks on the shore
[No specimen]

Island e = /Pisonia Isle/ [ — added later]
Dec r : [6] 1802

Composed of calcareous breccia &fine pudding stone

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 21

Island h (North [/] Vandorlins Island [ — added later]
Lat : [blank] Long : [blank]
Dec r : 16-25—1802

No I Composes the Island with some slight variation of grain & hardness, forming in several
parts of the shore abrupt but not very high cliffs, full [of] wide cracks & here & there
containing small caverns
[No specimen]
No II On the shore west side of the Island near the place where the mangroves are cut down
[BM 1 9 1 1 , 1 545(2) label : Carpentaria North Island No 2 Island h Refs : Flinders, 2,
166; Brown diary (20 Dec. but, in fact, 19 Dec).

A pisolitic ironstone or laterite. In the diary, Brown noted nothing geological apart from
the fact that sandstones occupied the middle of the island. Sheet SD 53-16, Pellew,
Northern Territory, 1 : 250000 series, is not available. This specimen is one of a group
Brown gave W. H. Fitton about 1826; it is strange that no duplicate was preserved, and
that Brown failed to record the occurrence of ironstone on North Island, one of the Sir
Edward Pellew Group.]
No III Beach abreast of the anchorage, small rocks
[No specimen]

Island h4 Dec r 21—1802 [off Centre Island?]

Composed of Sand Stone in some places schistose as in specimens marked B —
[No specimens]

No II Small Rocks on the shore

[BM 1911,1 545(4) label : Carpentaria Island h-4 Dec r 21 s ' 1802 Ref : Brown diary (for
20 Dec.)

The sample is a porous coralline limestone with some small sparry patches. The data are
puzzling; Island h4 has not been found on Flinders' chart. On 21 December Brown
remained aboard the Investigator and Good that day accompanied Flinders to Craggy
Island (Good diary, 21 Dec; Flinders, 2, 167) but says nothing about rocks. At this period,
Brown again had trouble keeping time. If he collected this sample it must have been on 20
December. He landed then for an hour on a small island off the eastern coast of Centre
Island. From that inspection Brown adjudged the island to consist of sandstone. The
present sample may be from the remains of an old fringing reef.]

Island g ( Vanderlin Island) [ — added later]

3 hummock part where we landed on the 14 th Dec r is compos'd of sandstone but where we

landed & apparently in other places parts of the shore there are very large blocks some of

them loose on the surface of Calcareous grit

Other parts of the Island after wards examined on Dec r 19 & 25 exactly similar to Island h

That is composed of SandStone with here & there on the shores fragments of Iron Stone

[Between 21 and 25 December, Brown made no daily entries in his diary but his note of a

visit to Island g (Vanderlin Island) on 25 December agrees with Good's account. Of the

place Brown added:

The stone is the same precisely as that of Island h (North Island).

Island I (CapeMaria) [ — added later, but now known as Maria Island]
Jan y 1—1803

Island principally composed of Sand Stone —

No I Petrosilex ? containing minute crystals found loose on the shore in flat pieces about 200
Lb : not frequent

[BM 758 1 2 and 1 9 1 1 , 1 545(6) original label (with 758 1 2) : Carpentaria Island
L 54) Refs : Flinders, 2, 179; Brown diary ( 1 Jan.).

The specimens are from a plate of cream-coloured chert with irregular cavities lined with
small crystals of quartz. Sheet SD 53-1 1/12, Roper River/Cape Beatrice, Northern Terri-
tory, 1 : 250000 series, reports the presence of cherts in the Yalco and Lynott Formations

22 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

of Proterozoic age; both formations appear on the island near the landing place, some 2
miles W of the SE corner of Maria Island. The two pieces fit together exactly but do not
complete the original; a third part is missing.]

No II in the bed of a small rivulet near the landing place
[No specimen]

No III In slate like loose fragments 2 or 3 feet diameter, a few inches thick, on the beach
[No specimen]

No IV with N° III in pieces nearly the same size

[BM 75809 and 758 1 1 original label (with 75809) : Carpentaria Island I No 4 47)
The material is a deeply-leached platy siltstone or slate, almost white and marked by
dendritic growths of vernadite (hydrous manganese oxide) and joint-fillings of the same
black material. The original sample must have been broken and the parts separated before
registration of the collection. At that time one of the labels was mis-read and another
locality then assigned to part (75809) of the sample.]

Main land opposite Groote Eyland

arenaceo-calcareous [rocks] on the shore

Cavern Island (Chasm Island) [ — added later]
Sand stone vid Groote Eyland

Cavern Island I (Winchelsea Island) [ — added later]
[If a specimen was taken it is not preserved]

Groote Eyland Jan y 15 — 180 3

No I Common appearance of the Sand stone of which this part of the Island consists

[BM 191 1, 1545(5) label: Carpentaria Groote Eylandt No 1 8) Refs: Flinders, 2, 190;

Brown diary (15 Jan.).

A fine-grained reddish quartz sandstone, collected just N of North West Bay, Groote

Eylandt, opposite Finch Island (Sheet SD 53-7/8, Blue Mud Bay/Port Langdon, Northern

Territory, 1 : 250000 series). This and the following come from the Proterozoic Groote

Eylandt Beds.]
No 2 Sandstone with numerous angular fragments small pebbles of quartz not uncommon in

large blocks on the top of the bluff head near which the boat landed

[BM 75805 and 1911, 1545(5a) original label (with 75805): Groote Eylandt No 2 Jan y

15 1803 39)

The material is a pink quartzite formed from a quartz-rich gritstone with sporadic pebbles

by deposition of secondary silica.]

Island p ( Winchelsea Island) [ — added later]
Jan y 16 1803

No I Sand stone which composes the island as far as seen, similar to that of Groote Eyland
[BM 758 1 7 original label : Carpentaria Island p N° 1 Jan y 16—1803 Refs : Flinders, 2,
1 90 ; Brown and Good diaries ( 1 6 Jan.).

Good, Allen and Bauer went ashore this day; Brown remained on board. The sample is a
quartzite derived from a coarse quartz sandstone; quartz overgrowths on sand grains in
many places have enlarged to replace all matrix. Good remarked that the Rock here is
chiefly freestone of different degrees of hardness. Such variations result from the extent to
which silicification has proceeded in the Groote Eylandt Beds here.]

Island ql (Bustard Island) [ — added later]

[Brown landed on the island (18 January) and saw it was composed of sandstone (diary).]

Island r (Burneys Island) [ — added later]

[Visited by Brown on 19 January; the island composed of sandstone in the middle (diary).]

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 23

Island s ( Woodah Morgans Island) [ — added later]

No I Argillaceous stone composing the island sometimes rudely columnar breaking in large
cubical fragments containing veins of quartz

[BM 75814 original label: Carpentaria Island s Jan y 1803 No I Var 2 62) Refs:
Flinders, 2, 198-199; Brown diary (21 Jan.).

Rocks composed of argillaceous stone resembling basalt in some cases somewhat columnar in
all splitting into cubical or rhombic fragments. Thin veines of quartz & these but rare in some
places the rock in them nearly perpendicular strata (Brown). Most of Brown's (and Good's)
record of the day deals with Westall's and Allen's encounters with natives and the spearing
of the Master's mate, etc.

The mid-brown coloured sample is a feebly-metamorphosed mudstone; it has a cleavage
and this with distinct cross and diagonal joint systems determines the shapes of fragments
observed by Brown. The island was approached from the east and the first rocks to be
encountered would belong to the Lower Proterozoic Grindall Metamorphics (Sheet SD
53-7/8). This sample may be from that source or perhaps more likely from the Groote
Eylandt Beds that lie beneath most of the island.]

No 2 Specimen of No 1 with quartz veins, not uncommon
[No specimen]

No 3 forming rocks in a gully towards the North side of the Island
[BM 1911, 1 545(7) label : Carpentaria Morgans Island No 3 Island S
In addition to the argillaceous rocks, Flinders (2, 199) noted sandstones with a mixture in
some places of iron ore, but more frequently of quartz on Morgans Island. The two pieces
bearing the above number are purplish-brown clastic rocks from the Groote Eylandt
Beds; the smaller piece is of a quartz sandstone with an iron-stained argillaceous cement,
the other is similar but coarser — more like a gritstone.]

No 4 Top of the Island, forming pretty large flat masses loose on the surface

[BM 75813 and 191 1, 1545(9) original label (with 75813): Carpentaria Island S Jany 21
1803 No 4

The two samples are not from the same specimen though both are gritstones or fine
conglomerates with small well-rounded quartz pebbles in a sandy/argillaceous matrix.
Both show bedding features to which the platiness is related; they are from the Groote
Eylandt Beds.]

No 5 Sandstone on top of the Island in thin strata

[BM 1911, 1545(8) label: Carpentaria Morgan's Island No 5 Island S

A reddish-brown and even-grained quartz sandstone, somewhat friable, it is derived from

the Groote Eylandt Beds.]

Point T of the Main

Jan y 26 (Cape Shield) [ — added later]
Point S of the main Point Blane [ — added later]
Jan y 28th 1803

No I forming low rocks on the shore no other kind of stone (varities of this excepted) seen on
this point
[No specimen]

Round Head [Round Hill Island, Blue Mud Bay]

Arnheim South Bay Caledon Bay [ — added later]

No I Grey Granite of which a few blocks just above the surface seen not far from the tents of the
North East side of the bay
[No Specimen]

Point V \ (Mount Caledon) [ — added later]

grey granite similar to No 1 composes the hills of this point

[BM 758 1 5 original label : 63) Composing the Hills of Point U t Feby 6—1803 Refs :

Flinders, 2, 207 ff; Brown diary (5 Feb.).

24 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

The specimen is a medium-grained biotite-muscovite-hornblende adamellite, light grey in
colour and moderately fresh despite chloritization of the biotite. Graphic intergrowths of
quartz and alkali feldspar are typical. The material represents the Lower Proterozoic
Caledon Granite (Sheet SD 53-3/4, Arnhem Bay/Gove, Northern Territory, 1 : 250000
series).]

Island V x off Cape Arnheim

Composd of Grey granite grain coarse, I observed no veins ofguartz or ofsienite but one
remarkable vein of a finer granite about 2\ or 3 inches thick — in one place —
[No specimen; Brown's remark about the island being off Cape Arnhem is incorrect.
Island Vj is the present Dudley Island (visited 10 Feb.), in front of Caledon Bay.]

Arnheim North Bay [Melville Bay of Flinders and modern maps.]

No I small graind greyish granite with thin quartz veins on the hill nearest the ship (Point
Dundas) [ — added later]
[No specimen]

No II Coarse-graind grey Granite composing the greater part of the hills examind & the blocks
exposd in the neighbourhood of the anchorage, of this there are also larger pieces not packed
in paper

[BM 75820 original label: Arnham North Bay No 2 Feby 14 1803 89) Refs: Flin-
ders, 2, 224-5; Brown diary (13-14 Feb.)

A rather weathered granodiorite with large (to c. 25 mm) subrounded ocelli of feldspar
surrounded by darker patches or trails of biotite and some pink garnet, the rock matches
the Bradshaw Granite (? Archaean) mapped on Sheet SD 53-3/4. This specimen was
probably taken in the vicinity of Drimmie Head.]

No III Oxyd of Manganese? Small island in North Arnheim Bay. large specimens of this
unpacked (Melville Island) [ — added later]

[BM 758 1 8 no original label (but that with 758 1 9 may belong) Refs : Flinders, 2, 224 ;
Brown diary (16 Feb.)

This colloform mass of pyrolusite (Plate 1, Top), one side smooth and containing admixed
goethite, the others rough as broken from a larger body or outcrop, is of especial interest
in view of recent commercial exploitation of manganese in the region. On 16 February,
Brown (diary) accompanied Flinders on a boat excursion to the more distant parts of the
bay [Melville Bay]. Small island landed on contains much manganese? Flinders, that day,
reported visiting an isthmus, some 3 miles E of Drimmie Head, where mangroves grew on
rocks of strongly impregnated iron stone. Isthmus may have been island (though certainly
not Melville Island) and iron stone a manganese oxide but, in any case, it is strange that
Brown did not appear to divulge his opinion about the manganese.
Later, Flinders (2, 245) came to think a zone of ironstone extended across the whole NE
corner of Arnhem Land and including this deposit in Melville Bay.
In Brown's Catalogue, No III (above) completes the list of samples from Melville Bay.
There is, however, another specimen in the BM(NH) collection taken during the visit of
Investigator :

BM 75819 original label: Arnham North Bay Island [blank] 88) Feb 16—1803
Refs : Good diary ( 1 4 Feb.) ; Brown diary ( 1 6 Feb.)

The specimen consists of a group of broken, clear to slightly milky quartz crystals with
some weathered granite or cemented sand and iron oxide attached. Brown mentions
perfect crystalls of quartz in the same passage as the manganese oxide just listed but as the
quartz is not in his catalogue we think the present sample may not be his. Good (14 Feb.),
in fact, disclosed that Flinders, Bauer and Westall found quartz crystals in Caverns
[?cavities] in Ironstone & Granite. If the sample was collected then, the original label
here may really belong to 75818, which was collected by Brown on the day stated.
Despite that uncertainty, there is no doubt the crystals were collected at Melville Bay;
the matrix, in fact, makes that clear. A piece of quartz, registered as BM 75776 and

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5

25

Plate 1 Top: A colloform mass of pyrolusite and goethite collected from an island in Melville Bay,
Gulf of Carpentaria, during the Investigator voyage. BM 75818. Bottom: Quartz, from Melville
Bay, Arnhem Land. Part of this specimen was illustrated in Edwards (1976). BM 75819. The
specimens are about two-thirds natural size.

E -C

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 27

assigned to a locality at Keppel Bay, (p. 13) fits a broken end of BM 75819 (illustrated
in Edwards, 1976, PI. 4); the two pieces are now united (Plate 1 Bottom).]

North Coast

Island y 2 /Pobassos' Island/ [ — added later]
Feb y 18—1803

No I Sand Stone composing the greater part of the Island

[BM 75804 original label : North Coast Island y.2 Feb* 18—1803 No I 34) Refs :
Flinders, 2, 235; Brown and Good diaries.

Good described the island as very hilly &full of Stones, which are grit stone & in Some
places a kind of Slate stone. Brown saw it as composed of an argillaceous stone. The sample
is an even- and fine-grained grey quartz sandstone or rather, from the extent of secondary
silicification, a quartzite. We note that the Upper Proterozoic Wigram Formation, con-
taining massive grey fine sandstones (Sheet SC 53-15/16, Wessel Islands/Truant Island,
Northern Territory, 1 : 250000 series), occupies that part of the island facing Investigator s
anchorage. The description is appropriate to this specimen.]

No Ifi softer variety of the former
[No specimen]

No II In a gully about half a mile from the anchorage

[BM 75802 original label : North Coast Island y.2 Feby 18-1803 No 2 32)

The sample is of an olive-green siltstone, distinctly jointed across and along bedding

planes. The rock appears to come from the Pobasso Formation (Upper Proterozoic).]

No III in flat blocks left dry at low water, abreast of the ship granite dark grey, fine grain d
[BM 75803 and 191 1, 1545(1 1) original label (with 75803): North Coast Island y. 2 Feb y
18, 1803 No 3 33)

None of our observers (Flinders, Brown and Good) saw fit to comment on this rock, a
quartz dolerite from the sill of Proterozoic age that crops out along the E shore of
Pobasso Island. Under the microscope this fresh rock displays interstitial graphic inter-
growths of quartz and alkali feldspar; brown hornblende and biotite occur in addition to
abundant pyroxenes.]

Island yl (Cottons Island) [ — added later]
Feb y 20—1803

No I forming the upper part of the cliff which we ascended on the 20 th

[No specimen]
No II forming the greater part of the island = {white sandstone]

[No specimen; Cotton Island consists of the same geological units as Pobasso Island. The
place deserves remembrance as the subject of one of Flinders' rare light touches (2,
235-236).]

Island y 3 ( Astells Island) [ — added later]
Feb y 21— 1803

No I Sand stone comprising the rocks on the island

[No specimen; Sheet SC 53-15/16 indicates the island as consisting largely of the Astell
Sandstone, the unit next above the Pobasso Formation in the Upper Proterozoic suc-
cession of the region.]

Island f z (lnglis Island) [ — added later]
No I In fiat beds on the shore

[BM 75801 original label: North Coast Island [blank] Feb y 24, 1803 No I 30) Refs:
Flinders, 2, 237; Brown diary (24 Feb.)

The specimen is a dark grey argillaceous rock with a marked parallel fracture, probably a
bedding cleavage rather than slaty cleavage. It seems to be more consistent with some

28 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

members of the Wigram Formation but the cove at the northern end of the island where
Brown landed is beset by the stratigraphically-higher Pobasso Formation (Sheet SC
53-15/16).]
No II Small block loose on the surface on the hills near the shore
[No specimen]

Bosanquefs Island Stone like that oflnglis Island [ — line added later]

Island a March 1 1803 (Mallison's Island) [ — added later]

No I Comprising the upper part of the perpendicular cliffs & tops of the hills, occasionally as in
this specimen marked with Copper / ?/ ore

[BM 75800 original label : North Coast Island a Mar 1 1803 No la 28) Refs : Flin-
ders, 2, 241 ; Brown diary (1 Mar.) A quartz sandstone, generally pink but passing to grey
next to joint surfaces coated with iridescent, botryoidal goethite. The latter must be what
Brown took to be copper ore. The sample is from the Upper (?) Proterozoic Mallison
Sandstone (Sheet SD 53-3/4).]

No 1/3 variety of the former
[No specimen]

No II forming the lower part of the perpendicular cliffs
[BM 75799 original label: 25) North Coast Island a No 2 Mar. 1 1803
A dark grey laminated mudstone, affected by some diagenetic or low-grade metamorphic
recrystallization of micas and formation of poikiloblastic spots, the sample comes from
the Lower(?) Proterozoic Wilberforce Beds forming cliffs along the S shore of Mallison
Island. Flinders (2, 241), noting the black cliffs as he approached the island, thought he
would find coal there.]

No III In loose blocks at the bottom perpendicular cliffs
[No specimen]

No I V with the former, a variety of No I
[No specimen]

Point y2 of the main (South side Cape Newbald) [ — added later]
March 3 d 1803

composd of similar stones took the following [blank]

Island ixl -Gape-Red Cliffs [ — added later] March 4
No I at one end of the red cliff No II

[No specimen]
No II forming red cliffs moderately high in many places much softer

[No specimen; Brown (diary, 4 March) noted the red cliffs on the mainland (opposite

Cape Newbald) to consist of siliceous sand or ochre. On Sheet SD 53-3/4 the area is

mapped as covered by Cainozoic laterites, etc.]

New Years Island North Coast March [12] 1803

Coral but little changd composing the Island, at least no other stone seen on the surface — Mr
Good

[No specimen, if one was collected. Good (diary, 12 March) reported: The whole Island is
composed of Coral & sand & shells and some lakes of Salt water with mangroves. See also
Flinders, 2, 249.]

Island of Timor Coopang Bay
April l—7th 1803

No I found loose in the bank of the Rivulet a little above the town — of Coopang

[No specimen]
No II Rocks in the bed of the River a little above the town of Coopang

[No specimen]
No III near the River one piece only seen marmor —
[No specimen]

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 29

No I V Calcareous Rock composing the hills above Coopang the cliffs on the shore The rock on
which the fort is built containing shells not uncommonly

[BM 75821 and 1911, 1545 (10) original label (with 75821): Timor No 4 (3; label with
1911, 1545 (10): Carpentaria Round Head

The disparate labels relate to two pieces that fit together exactly (now reunited) leaving, as
has been noted in a few other cases, clear evidence of a third part still missing. Round
Head, mentioned in Brown's catalogue (p. 23) but not by Flinders, must be Round Hill
Island in Blue Mud Bay on the eastern shore of Arnhem Land. Fitton (King, 1826, 2, 61 1)
offers remarks on Round Head but these seem to combine a published report concerning
the nearby Cape Grindall (Flinders, 2, 202) with an observation on the present specimen.
Fitton terms this rock a calcareous, probably concretionary stone, enclosing the remains of
shells, with cavities lined with crystals of calcareous spar. However, we can find no evidence
anyone from Investigator actually landed on Round Hill Island and conclude that Fitton
was misinformed by Brown. If one of the labels is appropriate, it is the one indicating this
heterogeneous limestone, in part compact, in part cavernous and sparry, was collected at
Koepang, Timor.]

The catalogue shows how faithfully Brown and his party followed Banks's directions. Their
geological work rarely passed the level of collecting. Access to the specimens, however, enables us
to grasp the scale of collecting in terms of lithological variety. For the first leg that was not
possible as Brown's catalogues, by themselves, are not especially informative. Often he listed no
more than a number and a locality (and a vague locality at that). General localities may serve a
botanical collector; they are less helpful to the geologist. With the specimens and modern
geological maps it has been possible to recognize not only the situations from which the samples
were taken but to discover that Brown's collection is reasonably representative of the rocks he
and his party would have encountered. Within the limits set for their work, the achievement is
creditable.

It is also possible to glimpse, from the records of the second leg of the voyage, something
concerning the efforts of John Allen and Peter Good in regard to geology. If Allen remains in the
shadows the activities of 15 September 1802 indicate his ability to reach independent conclusions
in the identification of rocks. That Flinders attached Allen's name to an island on his map of the
Gulf of Carpentaria must be a sign that the miner had proved himself useful. Good's contribution
is much easier to recognize. His diary is a model of careful record, stocked with notes about rocks
as well as plants. On many occasions he worked away from Brown, by himself, or with Allen, or
one of the artists. Good emerges as a competent naturalist in his own right. He was far more than
a gardener and Brown's botanical assistant; his death on 12 June 1803 just after Investigator
returned to Sydney must have been a severe blow to the scientific effort.

Before leaving the second stage of the voyage, it is necessary to consider Flinders and his
geological work. We have no idea what specimens he collected, apart from the few pieces given to
Brown, but Flinders's text betrays his interest. Geology was to be a source of intellectual diver-
sion during his years of imprisonment on Mauritius. Beset with the problems of navigating and
charting dangerous waters, Flinders had even less opportunity than Brown to discover significant
stratigraphical relations along the Australian coast yet in two broadly geological fields he made
observations that were to attract wide attention. They were the nature of coral reefs and terres-
trial magnetism, perhaps obvious interests for a navigator with a scientific bent. His magnetic
observations, compiled in his captivity, found a place in the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society (1805, 95: 186-197) and were the first scientific fruits of the expedition to be
published. Though never elected to fellowship in the society, Flinders won a favourable re-
putation among scientists. For the last few years of his life, he enjoyed a place in the Wernerian
Natural History Society in Edinburgh, a body presided over by Brown's friend Robert Jameson.
The connection for Flinders must have been a little incongruous; his belief in the efficiency of
subterranean heat as a cause of geological action was hardly Wernerian (Vallance, 1975, p. 23).

Flinders's study of the Australian coral reef system began in about latitude 20° S and culmi-

30 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

nated with observations of the fringing reefs at Halfway Island in what he termed the Corallian
(now, Coral) Sea and the reefs along Pandora Passage leading into Torres Strait (Flinders, 2, pp
87-89, 114-116, 336). He was particularly interested in the morphology of the reefs and the
manner in which the banks accumulated. There is something in Flinders of the 'instinctive'
model espoused by J. R. Forster (1729-1798), naturalist to Cook's second voyage round the
world, after examining some of the low islands of the Pacific Ocean. Flinders had no greater
appreciation than Forster (1778) of the zoological aspects of coral growth; both seem to have
thought the organisms simply fulfilled their destiny by constructing ramparts. Emergence of the
reefs followed that inexorable growth, modified from time to time as the sea attacked the
structure and redistributed calcareous rubble. It was a remarkably non-catastrophic view. Jame-
son (in Cuvier, 1822, pp 325-328) quoted extensively from Flinders in his notes on coral islands.
Others also cited him and though twenty years later Flinders's ideas were set aside, Darwin
(1842) still relied on his charts and descriptions. The work of Flinders gave a starting-point for
the geological investigations of J. B. Jukes (1811-1869) on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia
during the voyage of H.M.S. Fly (Jukes, 1847). On the Investigator, it had been a job for the
commander. Flinders's little known communication of January 1807 to the Societe a" Emulation
on Mauritius (Flinders, 1810) includes general notes on the Australian reefs as well as a particular
record of his experience of Wreck Reef.

The Stay in Australia June 1803-May 1805

When the ramshackle Investigator reached Sydney and Flinders had announced his intention to
seek another vessel in England to complete the survey, Brown sought permission to remain and
extend his work while the commander was absent. Applying to Flinders by letter dated 13 July
1803 (BL Add MS 32439 ff 98-99) on his own and Bauer's behalf, Brown explained how much
more usefully they could be employed in the colony. A postscript to the letter requested similar
permission for Allen. Brown pointed out that Allen 'might ... be usefully employ'd especially in
the more remote & mountainous districts of the Colony & that he would be a valuable assistant
to me in my excursions '. Permission came four days later but Allen soon changed his mind.

Mr. Allen who was at first inclin'd to remain & was therefore included in my letter has since,
from a well founded apprehension of incurring great expence, requested to go home & as the
department to which he belongs has hitherto afforded us so little I think he has judg'd very
wisely— [so Brown told Banks in his letter of 6 August 1803]— (BL Add MS 32439 ff
104-108).

Despite his request to stay, Brown went on in the letter to express disappointment with the
voyage: 'Mineralogy has been uniformly a barren field & even Botany has fallen short of my
expectations '. He wrote to Greville the same day in like vein (BL Add MS 32439 ff 117-1 19/121-
124). With conscious or accidental ambiguity, Brown told Greville 'Mr. Westall with whom
professionally I have nothing to do & Mr. Allen the Miner who is really of very little use go home
on the Porpoise '. He explained that ' Botany I have all along made my chief study & in conse-
quence of our very short stay at many of our anchorages the other departments were sometimes
in a great measure overlook'd '. Greville was also told Flinders did not rate Brown's collections
highly enough, that he had failed to provide proper boxes, and so forth. It would be intriguing to
know if Flinders was not at times irritated by Brown's narrow devotion. But to return to the
letter, having complained about the dullness of Australian minerals (rocks), Brown finished by
remarking that a number of the books he wanted had not arrived. Among the titles was ' Hauys
Systematic work on Mineralogy', one soon to be unexpectedly appropriate. Within the year
Brown would be working in the company of a mineralogist who owed his appointment to
Greville's interest. This period of Brown's activity is not well-known ; for that reason we treat it in
rather more detail than the earlier stages.

The Porpoise left Sydney in August 1803 before all the natural history collections had been
packed. Indeed, it is far from clear what actually did go at that time. One set of Brown's plants

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 31

certainly was destroyed (BL Add MS 32439 ff 134-135) but as he had kept duplicates the loss was
not irreparable. We know that Flinders' collection of rocks went and assume Brown's rocks from
southern Australia were lost on the reef. It is not recorded if Allen had any responsibilities
towards care of the collections on board. Allen himself went on to China with other survivors
from the Porpoise. There he took passage 6 February 1804 on the Indiaman Henry Addington
(India Office Libr., London. Ships' logs L/MAR/B/170C) from Wampoa Reach, Macao, in a
convoy of some twenty ships among which the men of the Porpoise had been distributed. We
know that Allen landed at Brighton 8 August 1804. All trace of him ends with a letter dated 30
August from Banks to Brown (BM (NH) DTC 15, ff 84-85) mentioning Allen's return and that he
had brought news of Good's death. There is nothing about Allen's work, nothing about rocks; it
is assumed he returned unencumbered and that no geological collections reached England until
1805. During his stay in Australia, Brown twice sent consignments of specimens to Banks but
these were exclusively botanical. Any rocks left behind in August 1803 must have returned with
Brown in October 1805.

Brown stayed in and about Sydney, botanizing and arranging his collections, until an op-
portunity to travel southwards to Bass Strait presented itself. It had been resolved to make a new
settlement in that region under a lieutenant-governor, David Collins (1756-1810). Collins set up a
camp on the mainland near Port Phillip and established communication with Sydney. The Lady
Nelson, with Brown as a passenger, left the mother colony at the end of November 1803 carrying
messages for Collins. Bad weather in the strait forced her to seek shelter and Collins became
alarmed when she failed to arrive. Already convinced the camp was unsuitably situated, Collins
decided to combine a search for the Lady Nelson with a reconnaissance of the opposite side of
Bass Strait. By chance, the schooner sent out by Collins had also to run for shelter in the Kent's
Group and there found Lady Nelson, which was promptly engaged to convey the search party to
Van Diemen's Land. Brown remained on board and so came to witness the beginnings of
European settlement in Tasmania.

The death of Good and Flinders's departure had removed the diligent diarists. Brown's subse-
quent record is quite erratic and, in places, misleading. For instance, he dated his departure on
Lady Nelson as 1804 instead of 1803, a mistake which has led some to think he twice travelled on
her to Tasmania. The chance meeting with Collins's party brought together Brown and Adol-
arius W. H. Humphrey (17827-1829), H.M. Mineralogist in the colony. Others in London had
heard the representations to which Banks was deaf, that a mineralogist be sent to New South
Wales. The man appointed went out with Collins. Humphrey's commission, dated 14 January
1803 (HR Austr., ser. 3, I, p. 6), he owed to Brown's correspondent C. F. Greville. His father,
George Humphrey, was a well-known London dealer (Whitehead, 1973). For Greville's infor-
mation George Humphrey prepared a series of extracts from his son's letters (BL Add MS 42071
ff 125-145); these provide necessary supplements to Brown's account.

Sharing acquaintances among the devotees of natural history in London, Brown and Humph-
rey were to share many experiences in the wilds of Tasmania. But although thus thrown together
their relation may never have been especially close. Humphrey, a gregarious type with a distinct
inclination to commerce, must have been quite unlike the reserved, even secretive, Robert Brown.
Brown has little to say about Humphrey, the return is at once more voluble and respectful. But
Humphrey made an impression. Brown resumed collecting rocks. One of his catalogues for this
period has been preserved in the Mineralogy Library of the British Museum (Natural History).
The manuscript fills 6j pages of the 8 leaves into which a single sheet (43 x 31 cm) was folded — so
many of Brown's notes and lists were entered on such folded sheets — and is entitled : Collection of
Minerals from Kenfs Group Dec r 1803 (cf. Edwards, 1976, p. 402). In fact, after recording four
samples from that place the list continues with 18 specimens from Port Dalrymple in northern
Tasmania, 2 from Port Phillip and 27 from about the River Derwent. The specimens have not
been found but, unlike Brown's previous lists, this one affords means to discover what was
collected. It gives rock names, not just localities; here surely is a sign of Humphrey's influence.
Brown's new-found lithological fluency found expression also in a unique statement headed
Mineralogy (BM (NH) Bot. Libr. Brown MS 10 f. 137) near the end of his notes on the plants of
the Kent's Group:

32 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

Mineralogy

Both Islands are high consisting of rounded hills. They are compos'd of granite mostly grey

here & there red : both consisting of Felspar Quartz & Mica rarely containing also black

schorl : Mica is either colourless or in the red granite black, sometimes wanting Felspar

sometimes found in some crystallizd rhombs. The granite with fissures both vertical and

horizontal often presenting the appearance of rude & irregularly jointed columns

The surface of some of the lower hills especially their sloping sides coverd with loose

fragments of various: some of considerable size of arenaceous lime s tone carbonate of lime

([illegible word cancelled by Brown]) not stratified or as far as I could see continuous nor

containg marine exuviae effervescing weakly with acetous briskly with the mineral acids

Several small runs of water in different parts of the Eastern Island but most of them with an

unpleasant sweetish taste

Soil on the slopes of these hills that are wooded sandy mixed with vegetable mould brownish

not deep very loose in the moist valleys a greater proportion of decayd vegetable matter but

these in generally swampy on some of the hills the surface coverd merely with coarse granite

sand or grit

Both Islands almost everywhere rise with a steep aclivity from the shore except in the sandy

beach of the Island.

In many places they present to the sea perpendicular cliffs of several hundred feet in height

The greatest elevation & at the same time the most precipitous quarter is towards W & SW '

Humphrey's more succinct account (BL Add MS 42071 ff 132v-133r) has nothing about acid
tests, though he must have supplied the reagents ; Brown did not worry about such things while
on Investigator.

On 1 January 1804 the Lady Nelson reached Port Dalrymple. Brown and Humphrey worked
about the estuary and its hinterland until the 19th of the month when the ship left for Port
Phillip in preparation for moving the settlement to the River Derwent. There was no lack of
variety at Port Dalrymple. Brown noted clay and 'oxyd of iron', pudding stone and mica-
ceous schistus, hornslate and granite among others. Some are unfamiliar terms now, none
more so than granitell(e). That word, used by both Brown and Humphrey, turns up among
the notes for northern Tasmania and the Derwent. Granitell(e) was a term quickly lost in
synonymy, a word applied by H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799) to a substance similar to that
already called syenite by Werner. Brown and Humphrey evidently applied the name to some
part or variant of the dolerites that form large intrusive masses across much of Tasmania.
Humphrey, after seeing more of the rock near Hobart on the Derwent, decided that this was

the Primitive Stone, of which all the Mounts of that nature, I have yet seen in Van Diemen's
Land, are composed: It consists of Quartz and Hornblend [Granitell] of a dark olive-green
colour; the Hornblend is the least considerable quantity of the Mass; and, where it has been
exposed to the Weather, is of a Bronze colour (BL Add MS 42071 f. 139v).

The passage continues with a descriptive sketch of the columnar jointing commonly found in the
rock. If we add that the rock in fact consists largely of clear plagioclase and dark pyroxenes, not
quartz and hornblende, no criticism is intended. Diagnosis of rock-minerals in the days before
thin sections was not very refined. Brown (diary, 14 March 1804) by referring to the Granitell as a
greenstone strengthens our equation of this rock with dolerite.

Humphrey literally left his mark on northern Tasmania. In his own words, on 13 January 1804
while water casks were being filled ' I amused myself with carving my name A. H. 1804 in the solid
Basaltic Rock (the Rocks named in the Chart Basaltic, are composed of Quartz and Hornblend)
with Hammer and Chissel ' (BL Add MS 42071 f. 134v). The inscription beside the Supply River is
still legible. How splendid it would be if the map also remains; a map dated 1804 of any part of
Australia and showing geological detail is a treasure still being sought. There is also the matter of
Humphrey's collections; none of them has been traced, yet we know he had, as a perquisite of
office, free passage for specimens and sent quantities of shells and ' minerals ' to his father. The

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 33

sale in May-July 1808 of his late uncle's (Jacob Forster, 1739-1806) stock in trade (some 5860
lots) included a considerable number of shells from New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land
many of them possibly from Humphrey junior. Jameson (1811) in a paper read 1809 states, on
Brown's authority, that Humphrey was the discoveror of topaz on Cape Barren Island, Bass
Strait, and as that mineral sent from Botany Bay (Sydney) became a common article of trade in
Britain (Thomson, 1814) Humphrey no doubt contributed to it. The trustees of the British
Museum acknowledged a donation on 10 February 1810 of 'Topaz (Crystallized, white) from
New South Wales' from Sir Joseph Banks (MS Donations 1756-1876. Keeper's Rm., Mineralogy
Dept., BM (NH)); the sample is presumed lost. [Since the above was completed, the correspon-
dence of Humphrey has appeared in print, see Vallance, 1981.]

Not until Brown and Humphrey and their colleagues moved to Hobart Town in mid-February
1804 is there any record of organic fossils. Writing from Hobart Humphrey advised his father (BL
Add MS 42071 f. 138) of his discoveries, among them fossil wood from the Coal River. Silicified
wood from Van Diemens Land some years later was a common sight at London auctions. After
reading Brown's and Humphrey's records, a perusal of the contemporary catalogues leads to a
feeling of deja vu. For instance, Lot 3 on the fourth day of Henry Heuland's (1778-1856) sale of
May 1812 includes ' Green garnets, New Holland '. Such were found by Brown and Humphrey on
their expedition of May 1804 to the Huon River. In Humphrey's opinion 'The principal of my
Discoveries on that journey is the Green Garnet in its Matrix, and on the surface of Pitch Stone,
and included in it ' (BL Add MS 42071 f. 141); Brown had two samples called ' Pitch stone ' in his
list for 'Vicinity of the Derwent'. That Heuland (Russell, 1950) was another nephew of Jacob
Forster increases the likelihood of Humphrey having provided the specimens offered in London.
The locality, incidentally, appears to be the present Port Cygnet area.

There is, of course, no suggestion that Brown turned to commerce through his association with
Humphrey but the point should be made that material like that taken by Brown did find its way
to the London market. Where is it and where, for that matter, is Brown's? Those having the
charge of old collections might bear a Micawberish suggestion in mind. Before exploring the
Huon River, Brown and Humphrey had sought the source of the River Derwent and made
several excursions to Mount Wellington, then called Table Mountain. The flora of the mountain
behind the settlement of Hobart Town fascinated Brown; its rocks and those of the foothills had
their own interest. He climbed to the plateau top on 18 February when Humphrey was busy
helping at the settlement and on that occasion (diary, 18 Feb.) saw marine fossils (he mentions
' Pectenes ' and ' coral ' — probably bryozoans) in a ' marl ' composing ' the round hills on its base '.
On 14 March, this time with Humphrey, he again looked at these fossiliferous rocks. Humphrey
called the material ' an Argillaceous Stone, having numerous impressions of Marine Shells, &c.
on it' (BL Add MS 42071 f. 139). He refers to the place as a 'Secondary Hill, leaning on the
Table ' which may imply a stratigraphical opinion but, if so, the thought is not developed. Nor is
it one to which Brown gave attention. Yet it led in time to a contribution by William Buckland
(1784-1856) of Oxford.

Buckland (1821) announced that in specimens collected by Brown in Tasmania and New South
Wales, and given him by the collector, he had recognized shelly fossils (from Tasmania) which in
his opinion resembled those of the Mountain Limestone in England and plant fossils (from
N.S.W.) like some known to occur in the English Coal Measures. Buckland was attempting, on
rough palaeontological evidence, a first correlation of Australian strata with those of Europe. It
was an interesting result from Brown's reconnaissance but the circumstances have puzzling
aspects. Only one sample ('No 16 Composing hills in the neighbourhood of the Derwent some-
times the cliffs on its shores here & there containing impressions of shells ') in Brown's catalogue
is recorded as fossiliferous and there is no record of fossil plants from his later visit to the Hunter
River in New South Wales.

Brown had left Hobart on 9 August 1804 aboard the Ocean bound for Sydney and after
spending some weeks there set out 1 1 October for the Hunter River on the colonial schooner
Resource. His record of that journey and his boat voyages up the river and its tributaries the
Paterson and Williams Rivers is rather thin. In fact, the diary ends 4 November with him still at
the Hunter River. We know however he visited the coal mines established a few years earlier and

34 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

worked by convict labour at Kingstown (the present Newcastle) but there is no mention of seeing
fossil plants with the coal. If he collected geological samples and made a list, they are not with his
collections at the British Museum (Natural History). What then was the source of Buckland's
specimens?

Postlude

Brown's return to England with Bauer on the Investigator was mentioned earlier. Bauer, inciden-
tally, had botanized at Norfolk Island while Brown travelled elsewhere in Australia. With them
went their collections in 36 packages, including 3 cases of geological specimens — listed in the
inventory as Cases XVII and XVIII '{ = half Hogshead} Minerals of New Holland, XIII Min-
erals & miscellaneous articles' (BL Add MS 32439 fF 183-184). There is no detail as to contents.
In his manuscript General Account of a collection of Natural History of New Holland (BM (NH)
Botany Libr. Brown corresp. 3, 125), Brown claimed he collected four packing cases of minerals.
Perhaps the fourth was that we believe lost at Wreck Reef.

Before setting out on the expedition, Brown, Bauer, Westall, Good and Allen had each sub-
scribed to an undertaking drawn up by Banks (HR NSW, 4, pp 349-351) that all collections,
notes, drawings etc made during the voyage were to be regarded as public property although any
items not so required eventually should be at the disposal of the collector, author or artist.
Following the return of Brown and Bauer in October 1805, Sir Joseph Banks (to whose house in
Soho Square the collections had been removed from Liverpool) seems to have forgotten the
agreement. Everything except the plants and botanical drawings was now to go to the British
Museum. In the draft of a letter simply marked 'Jan 1806' and intended for the Secretary of the
Admiralty (BL Add MS 32439 ff 237-241), Banks wrote:

' ... if it should be, as it will probably be the case, their Lordships intention & order the
Collections finally to be deposited in the National repository of the British Museum, that
orders be given for them to Send the Collections of Minerals[,] Quadrupeds[,] Birds &
insects to be placed there immediately & arranged by the officers of the house who are fully
Competent to do that Business Effectively.'

Earlier in the same draft Banks referred to Brown :

' . . . who tho he Profest himself when he engaged in the Service of the Public a Botanist only,
undertook at the desire of his Employers to Superintend the Collection of Seeds for the
Royal Gardens at Kew assisted by a Gardener who died during the Voyage[.] The Col-
lection of Minerals in which he was assisted by a Derbyshire miner, he [d]id for that
Purpose & also the ornithological & Entomological [;] in all which matters, the gardiner &
the mineralogist were instructed to assist him.'

The purpose for which the mineral collection was made is not clarified. Banks was not interested
and wanted it removed. Why five years elapsed before the Admiralty handed over the collection
is a mystery. There is a hollow ring to Banks's apologia for Brown; it was he who insisted on
Brown's botanical emphasis, after the association with Hawkins. What Banks really wanted at
the beginning of 1806 was an agreement whereby Brown and Bauer could continue in public
employment to organize the botanical collection with a view to publication, and in that he
succeeded. Thereafter Brown devoted himself to botany, for some years assisting also at the
Linnean Society and, after the death of Dryander, as Banks's librarian, right-hand man and,
eventually, legatee. With the transfer of the Banksian library and herbarium, the enjoyment of
which he had inherited, to the British Museum, Brown became in 1827 keeper of the botanical
collection. He continued in that post until his death.

'During his lifetime Brown was never particularly generous with his collections' (Burbidge,
1956, p. 229). That is a botanist's view; his attitude to the rock collections was quite different.
Indeed, as we have discovered he was not above damaging specimens already in the British
Museum to gratify a friend (or friends). But if Brown cared so little for his geological samples why
did he not hand over to the Admiralty (and thus to the museum) all the material he had

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 35

collected? Only one donation oflnvestigator material is recorded at the museum (6 April 1811)
and from that come the samples described in this study. There is no avoiding the conclusion that
Brown handed over none of the rocks and fossils gathered after the departure of Flinders. As to
the organic fossils Brown not only kept them aside but did not even include them in the list of his
collection; at least they do not appear in any document we have found. From this 'extra'
collection must have come the samples disposed of privately to Buckland and, possibly, others.
Perhaps it was fortunate that Brown failed to follow the Banksian line of 1806. The samples
handed over to the Admiralty were forgotten; among those given to friends, some became a
source of stimulation to scientific enquiry.

Buckland's remarks on the coal plants from Australia attracted the interest of the French
palaeobotanist Adolphe Brongniart (1801-1876) who recognized two taxa new to science on
samples sent him from Oxford. Brongniart (1828, pp 54, 152) introduced the names Glossopteris
browniana and Phyllotheca australis. The former was illustrated and described in more detail by
Brongniart (1828-38, 1, pp 223-224) where it is stated the specimens provided by Buckland were
supplemented by others collected in New South Wales by R. P. Lesson (1794-1849). Lesson had
visited Australia during the voyage of La Coquille (1822-1825). It has long been assumed that the
Oxford material was collected by Brown, an assumption based largely on Buckland's statement
of 1821 and given circumstantial support by the specific name chosen by Brongniart for the
Glossopteris. But the evidence remains indirect; no Brown-Buckland correspondence referring to
Australian fossils has been found. Examination of the types in the Oxford collection, through the
courtesy of Mr H. P. Powell, has not resolved the matter. None of the labels or register entries at
Oxford gives any clue to an association with Brown. Furthermore, the locality given for the
Phyllotheca — 'Coal Mine Hawkesbury River near Port Jackson, N.S.W. "a la Nouvelle-
Holland " ' — is that noted by Brongniart (1828-38). In fact the coal mine was at the Hunter River,
nearer 100 miles than the 10 miles north of Sydney that Brongniart claimed. If the samples were
collected by Brown, the original information has been thoroughly garbled. All we really know is
that Brown did gather fossil plants at the Hunter River, that he did not record the occasion in his
diary and that he gave some at least of these ' extra ' samples to Buckland. It is no more than
likely these were seen by Brongniart.

An even greater problem involves the first Australian invertebrate fossil to receive its own
place in the language of palaeontological systematics. This is the brachiopod named Trigonotreta
stokesi by Konig (1825) and described as 'Ex insula Van Diemen Novae Hollandiae In transi-
tionis(?) arenario'; the species name was to honour Charles Stokes (1783-1853) 'nobiscum
communicata'. It will be remembered that Buckland (1821) also had invertebrate fossils from
Tasmania given him by Brown. Again, these must have been 'extra' samples not recorded in
Brown's known catalogues. The original Trigonotreta has been attributed to the Brown col-
lection (Brown, 1946, p. vii). It is an opinion held widely and to which one of us (Vallance, 1978)
has recently given credence. The case is plausible but far from complete. The specimen itself has
disappeared. What remains is a wax model (BM (NH) Department of Palaeontology B 4798)
associated in its tray with a BM (NH) label indicating presentation by Stokes. Does the label refer
to the model or to the original fossil? Of course, the label cannot be 'original'. The traditional
belief is that the fossil was first donated to the Geological Society of London. When did it go
missing? Brown (1953) refers to specimen B4798 as the holotype mentioning it as a wax cast but
in her description of the holotype she writes as though it was natural. Had she seen the original?
It remains a rhetorical question, just as the one how did Stokes obtain it in the first place?

Charles Stokes, described by one who knew him as 'almost a universal collector' (Woodward,
1907, p. 73), was an active fellow and for many years a councillor of the Geological Society, the
museum of which he enriched with numerous donations. Among these were several collections,
large and small, from Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and New South Wales, given in the period
1818 to 1827; they are noted in the society's Transactions (ser. 1, 5; ser. 2, 2). Further details of
some of these collections appear in the so-called Geological Society Waste Books, now in the
Palaeontology Library (BM (NH)) and transferred there when the society closed its museum in
1911. What remained of the foreign collections was then distributed between the BM (NH)
Departments of Mineralogy and Palaeontology. Thus three samples of ' serpentine ' from Port

36 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

Dalrymple, Tasmania, received from Stokes on 6 November 1818 are now in the Department of
Mineralogy registered as 191 1.1582(1-3). A much larger collection given by Stokes 15 June 1821
included material from the 'Rev Wm Youl' (no doubt John Youl (1773-1827), colonial
chaplain — see Australian Dictionary of Biography, 2, pp 632-3) gathered in Tasmania together
with samples related to the explorations of John Oxley (17857-1828) in New South Wales,
though that work is also represented by another set of rocks from an unknown donor. There were
a few organic fossils in Youl's collection, which incidentally seems to have been made by another
as the heading to the original List of Minerals for the Rev d W m Youl suggests. Less than a month
earlier (22 May 1821) Stokes had donated ten fossiliferous samples from Tasmania. Waste Book 2
(p. 23) records them as two samples of ' Ferruginous sandstone with impressions of leaves ', six
specimens (three designated ' large ' of ' Shell limestone — transition? ' and two ' Cast of a bivalve '
(one ' large '). Neither specific localities nor collector are named. If Stokes gave the Trigonotreta
specimen to the Geological Society was it on this occasion? Brown (1946) has claimed so. But
unless it was one of the 'casts' (for which no matrix is mentioned) which sample would be likely?
The shells here were in limestone; Konig is clear that Trigonotreta was in sandstone.

That Stokes acquired Australian material from more than one source complicates the issue.
Brown's name is not among the identified sources though the omission may not be significant;
there are several examples in the Waste Books of Stokes's donations with no comment as to the
collector. The case for Robert Brown as the source of the original Trigonotreta really rests on the
knowledge that he did find shelly fossils near Hobart (in what he called ' marl ' and Humphrey an
' argillaceous stone '), that he brought samples home with him and gave some at least to Buck-
land. Stokes and Brown were also friends, so Brown could have given him specimens. We do not
know; the Stokes-Brown correspondence in the Botany Library (BM (NH)) yields no clues. The
common view is no more than possible. Indeed, the arguments of Brown (1946; 1953) in favour of
Brown as the collector of Trigonotreta have difficult aspects. Not only is Stokes's gift of May
1821 a doubtful link on lithological grounds but Buckland's (1821) reference to fossils from a hill
south of Table Mountain need not be a hint to Brown's collecting locality. Buckland (1821) dealt
with Brown's fossils and also with the collections from the Oxley explorations. It will be rem-
embered that Oxley and Youl were connected in Stokes's gift of June 1821. And in Youl's
catalogue no. 46 (17792 in the old Geological Society collection) is described as ' Petrefactions
from a hill South of the Table Mountain '. A mark against the entry suggests it was among the
residue transferred to the British Museum in 191 1. With that single exception, the pieces are now
held by the Department of Mineralogy (BM (NH)), registered under 1911,1579. It may be added
that a productid brachiopod from Austin's Ferry on the Derwent River is among them. Search in
the Department of Palaeontology at the museum, however, has failed to find Youl's no. 46. The
search should be continued, for the possibility that Youl, not Brown, supplied the first Trig-
onotreta cannot be ignored.

No matter whether Brown or Youl's supplier or someone else collected Trigonotreta from
Tasmania, Brown had discovered fossils there and in New South Wales and by passing samples
to his friend Buckland helped take the first steps towards elucidation of Australian palaeontol-
ogical stratigraphy. If Brown's role in that business was somewhat accidental, the Investigator
expedition had provided a means. This was a case where the sort of collecting recommended by
Banks could be useful. But Banks's notion that mere gathering of samples in general would suffice
led to weakness in the geological achievement. Rock samples alone can give few insights into the
important field of relationships between strata. Neither Flinders nor Brown achieved much more
than a limited lithological survey — what Hawkins, in his Instructions, called mineral geography.
To say that is not to criticize them; they amply satisfied their commission. And in fairness it must
be added that a considerable body of scientific opinion then still held to the concept that
lithological characters alone were an adequate basis for correlation of strata. The idea had arisen
from observed positional relationships between strata in Europe and developed through a notion
of world-wide formations into a method of lithological stratigraphy.

Positional observations and lithological characters were used by Baudin's mineralogists to
discern stratigraphical order in Australia. Leopold von Buch (1814) had sought system in the
samples they brought back, and admitted puzzlement. Perhaps the idea of universal formations

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 37

was not as infallible as Buch had once thought. But Buch's incisive attention moved to other
matters and the Paris collections were forgotten. His doubts were not shared by Fitton in his
study (King, 1826) which embraced some of Brown's rocks. In 1826, the lithological approach
was being strongly challenged by stratigraphical method dependent on palaeontological evi-
dence. Fitton knew this but, having no fossils, adopted the old lithological scheme. As Brown had
no positional detail to offer, Fitton tried to find order in a random collection of rock samples.
Fitton's analysis is less impressive than that of Buch more than a decade earlier.

Fitton's lithological comments, however, are worthy of note. The fashion for describing col-
lections of rock samples brought back by explorers was relatively new. In 1818 Konig supplied
descriptions of rocks from Zaire, made available by the Admiralty. The parallels and contrasts
with the Investigator voyage are interesting. That expedition to the River Zaire was led by J. K.
Tuckey (1776-1816), who had been with Collins at Port Phillip in 1803, and in Hobart at the time
Brown was there. Tuckey had suffered imprisonment by the French even longer than Flinders
and was to die a victim of his zeal for exploration. But the rocks gathered on that African
expedition not only passed from the Admiralty to the British Museum, they went with a request
that they be studied. Konig's report in answer to the request forms an appendix to Tuckey's
account (Tuckey, 1818, Appendix VI). Konig had been at the museum when the Investigator
rocks arrived and succeeded to the keepership of the then Department of Natural History in
1813. Banks's sanguine belief in January 1806 that the officers of the British Museum were fully
competent to arrange the collection of minerals may have been justified but it bore no fruit.
Flinders was to publish his record of the voyage with only a botanical appendix by Brown. The
geological contributions, tucked away in the text, were Flinders's own. For what was done on the
collections, Brown had to take the initiative and by then he was fully occupied by botany. Apart
from that science, the interests of natural history in the context of the Investigator expedition
were ill-served, not by those who travelled but by those in London who failed to give adequate
support before and afterwards. That there are geological results to consider stems chiefly from the
enthusiasm of Matthew Flinders and the occasional attention of Robert Brown.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Mr S. R. Band and Dr T. D. Ford for advice relating to Derbyshire, to Dr C.
H. C. Brunton for help with palaeontological matters, to Miss P. I. Edwards for making available
her transcript of the Good diary, Mr J. G. Francis for X-ray diffraction studies and Mr H. P.
Powell for granting us access to the Oxford collections. We are grateful, too, for the generous help
afforded by the staff of the Department of Library Services in the British Museum (Natural
History). Mrs E. V. Brunton (Mineralogy Library, BM (NH)) secured for us copies of the Allen
papers in the Sutro Library, San Francisco. The senior author wishes to place on record his debt
to the Keeper of Minerals, Dr A. C. Bishop, and his staff for splendid hospitality during the
period of study-leave from the University of Sydney when this work on the expedition-collection
was carried out.

Abbreviations Used

BL Add MS British Library, London. Additional Manuscripts.

BM (NH) DTC British Museum (Natural History), Dawson Turner Copies. (Botany Li-
brary).

HR A Historical Records of Australia. (Sydney, Government Printer. 1914-1925).

HR NSW Historical Records of New South Wales. (Sydney, Government Printer. 1892-

1901).

References

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the Endeavour 1768-1771. Hakluyt Society, Cambridge.
1962. The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks 1768-1771. 2 vols. Publ. Lib. N.S.W. and Angus

Robertson, Sydney.

38 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

Brongniart, A. 1828. Prodrome d'une histoire des vegetaux fossiles. F. G. Levrault, Paris.

— 1828-38. Histoire des Vegetaux fossiles ou recherches botaniques et geologiques. Bocage & D'Ocagne,

Paris and Amsterdam.
Brown, I. A. 1946. An outline of the history of palaeontology in Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 71:

v-xviii.

1953 (for 1952). Permian spirifers from Tasmania. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W. 86; 55-63.

Buch, L. von, 1814. Einige Bemerkungen iiber die geognostische Constitution von Van Diemens Land.

Magazin Ges. naturf. Fr. Bed. Jg. 6: 234—40.
Buckland, W. 1821. Notice on the geological structure of a part of the island of Madagascar, founded on a

collection transmitted to the Rt. Hon. Earl Bathurst, by Governor Farquhar in the year 1819; Trans, geol.

Soc. Lond. (1st ser.) 5: 476-81.
Burbidge, N. T. 1956. Robert Brown's collecting localities. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 80; 229-233.
Cuvier, G. 1822. Essay on the theory of the earth. With mineralogical illustrations by Professor Jameson.

William Blackwood, Edinburgh.

1825. Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles . . . 3rd edn., 5 vols. Dufour & D'Ocagne, Paris.

Dumpier. W. 1703. A voyage to New Holland ...in the year 1699. James Knapton, London.
Darwin, C. 1842. The structure and distribution of coral reefs. Smith, Elder & Co., London.

— 1844. Geological observations on the volcanic islands, visited during the voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Smith,

Elder & Co., London.
Edwards, P. I. 1976. Robert Brown (1773-1858) and the natural history of Matthew Flinders's voyage in

H.M.S. Investigator 1801-1805. J. Soc. Biblphy nat. Hist. 7: 385^107.
Flinders, M. 1810. Sur le Banc du Naufrage et sur le sort de M. de la Perouse. Annales des Voyages, de la

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1814. A voyage to Terra Australis ... in the years 1801, 1802, and 1803, in His Majesty's ship the

Investigator ... 2 vols, and atlas. G. and W. Nicol, London.
Forster, J. R. 1 778. Observations made during a voyage round the world . . . G. Robinson, London.
Harris, H. D. 1974. John Allen. Camborne Festival Magazine. Nov. 1974. pp 19-23.
Jameson, R. 1811. On the topaz of Scotland. Mem. Wernerian nat. Hist. soc. 1 : 445-52.
Jukes, J. B. 1847. Narrative of the surveying voyage of H.M.S. Fly ... 2 vols. T. and W. Boone, London.
King, P. P. 1826. Narrative of a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of Australia, performed between

the years 1818 and 1822. 2 vols. John Murray, London.
Konig, C. 1825. 1 cones Fossilium Sectiles. London.
Labillardiere, J. J. H. de 1800. Voyage in search of La Perouse . . . during the years 1791 . . . 1794. 2 vols. John

Stockdale, London.
Peron, F. 1804. Sur quelques faits zoologiques applicables a latheorie du globe. J. Phys. Chim. Hist. nat. 59:

463-79.
Peron, F. and Freycinet, L. 1816. Voyage de decouvertes aux Terres Australes ... Historique. Tome 2.

Imprimerie Imperiale, Paris.
Russell, Sir A. 1950. John Henry Heuland. Miner alog. Mag. 29: 395-405.

Scott, H. W. (Ed) 1966. Lectures in geology ...by John Walker. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Smith, W. Campbell. 1969. A history of the first hundred years of the mineral collection in the British

Museum with particular reference to the work of Charles Konig. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Hist. ser). 3:

237-59.
[Thomson, T.] 1814. Topaz. Ann. Phil. 4: All.
Tuckey, J. K. 1818. Narrative of an expedition to explore the River Zaire, usually called the Congo, in South

Africa, in 1816. John Murray, London.
Vallance, T. G. 1975. Origins of Australian geology. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 100: 13-43.
1978. Pioneers and leaders — a record of Australian palaeontology in the nineteenth century. Alcherin-

ga, 2: 243-250.
-1981. The start of government science in Australia: A. W. H. Humphrey, His Majesty's Mineralogist in

New South Wales, 1803-12. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 105: 107^16.
Vancouver, G. 1 798. A voyage of discovery to the north Pacific Ocean and round the world ... 3 vols. G. G. and

J. Robinson, London.
Whitehead, P. J. P. 1973. Some further notes on Jacob Forster (1739-1806) mineral collector and dealer.

Miner alog. Mag. 39: 361-3.
Woodward, H. B. 1907. The history of the Geological Society of London. Geological Society, London.

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 39

Appendix

John Hawkins's Geological Instructions for Robert Brown (BL Add MS 32439 ff 33-40)

Original spellings and arrangement are preserved in this transcript. The document is
neither signed nor dated and, apart from Brown's addition M r Hawkins' Instructions on
the verso off. 40, there are no annotations. Comparison of the handwriting with that of
letters by John Hawkins at the BM (NH) and elsewhere makes it clear that he was
responsible for the holograph manuscript.

In a voyage of so much scientifical interest as that which is about to be undertaken to the
South Seas it would be wrong not to pay some attention to Mineralogy; at the same time it must
be confest that this department of Natural History promises fewer discoveries than the two others
which are more particularly the objects of the expedition.

For not to mention the want of a good practical Observer in this line, among the men of
Science who have been selected for this voyage, the means of observing are fewer, more leisure is
required for making discoveries and there are much greater physical impediments to the acqui-
sition of knowledge.

The countries which are likely to be visited, are for the most part overgrown with wood,
difficult of access and if inhabited, insecure. The Mineralogist therefore can only form a
judgement of the nature of their constituent strata and of their productions from the natural
sections of these strata which are exposed in the cliffs & ravines near the Sea or from the alluvial
contents of the river beds or from the substances rejected by the tides on the shore.

The means of observation being so limited, the information thus obtained will necessarily
prove less conclusive & important than could be wish'd; nevertheless it will be both usefull and
acceptable if made with an attention to accuracy and method.

The following hints, it is presumed, may serve to direct and facilitate such enquiries.

Distant sea views of Islands & Continents as they present a general idea of their rise [,]
elevation and vertical outline, ought to be Correctly delineated not merely for the information of
the Geologist, but for the advantage of the Navigator.

On a nearer approach, the more particular features of this outline unfold themselves. The mass
of high ground then gradually divides itself into ridges, which successively develope their distinct
features and arrange themselves under a proportional scale of heights, the highest ridge being
most probably at the greatest distance from the sea shore.

This different aspect of the country must be marked by an accurate drawing.

Mountains of a volcanic origin may be distinguished at a great distance by their invariable
tendency to assume a conical form, by their insulated position in respect to other mountains
which are usually connected together in the form of ridges, by the smoke which they emit and by
the general redness of their tints.

Mountains of this description abound in curious subjects for drawings, but those which are
selected by the Naturalist are not in general such as would satisfy the Artist or the Connoisseur
for they are not the most picturesque.

The points of view which are most characteristical of the volcanic phoenomena will be chosen
as indeed they ought to be for a voyage which is devoted to the purposes of Science and the Artist
must submit, however reluctantly, to delineate objects which will certainly not exhibit his talents
to the best advantage. He must be guided in fact in their selection by the man of Science and must
consider the accuracy of his portrait as the greatest test of its merit, avoiding every thing like
picturesque embellishment.

Mountains too which are not volcanic and the natural sections of the strata on the Sea-shore
will frequently afford very interesting subjects for geological drawings.

For the forms of hills & mountains are often characteristical of the strata which compose them
and sometimes they expose to view their constituent strata.

Both the distant and the near views which are taken of every new land, will furnish a very
adequate idea of the form of its superficies, but if description is to be employed in aid of
delineation, it will be difficult to avoid incongruity for it is mortifying to observe that the

40 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

language of geological description is not yet formed or fixed, insomuch that nothing can be more
vague and indeterminate than what has been hitherto used for that purpose by Travellers &
Naturalists. Not only the terms are confounded but the order inversed too in which they ought to
be applied, in consequence of which no clear ideas are presented to the mind and no information.

Travellers indeed more frequently belong to the class of picturesque than of geological
observers and their descriptions of the face of a country relate more to its effects on the eye than
to its structure and composition; but in a voyage like this, it is presumed that the latter will be
thought a much superior object of curiosity to the former and will almost exclusively occupy the
attention of the Journalist.

The natural order of things, so far at least as they are objects of sensation, will suggest that
which ought to be pursued in his description. The great and the general features are to be seized
first, Let him descend by degrees to the particular ones and dwell chiefly upon such as are the
most characteristical.

After describing the face of a country, that is, the form of its superficies and even its verdure or
sterility; let him state what he has been able to observe of its constituent strata and what he is
authorized to conclude from analogy.

It has been already remarked that the forms of mountains are influenced by the nature of their
constituent strata, and although this rule is more particularly applicable to some strata than to
others and requires a practised eye it will be found of great service in assisting enquiries of this
nature, especially in countries so difficult of access.

It may be proper, in this place, to cite some examples of these modifications of the forms of
mountains. The volcanic have been already mentioned, they are perhaps the easiest of all others
to recognize and next to these the Whinstone or Basaltic, which from the peculiarity of their
profile in some countries are termed Step mountains. These are often insulated & conical but
have always a truncated summit. Hills or mountains of Sandstone present at a moderate distance
a convulsed grotesque appearance.

Calcareous mountains are broken into vast chasms, abound in declivities & caverns and may
be farther distinguish'd by their tint. There are no mountains altogether so picturesque as these.
Most of the great Chains which traverse Europe are chiefly composed of calcareous Strata.

Mountains of Granit, Gneiss & Micaceous Slate have less boldness of character and more
uniformity.

The first rarely occur in ridges and present not often unequivocal marks of a regular stratifi-
cation. The rock however divides into vast masses which are exposed on various parts of the
surface and may be distinguish'd by their grotesque appearance at a distance.

Mountains of Gneiss & Micaceous Slate are not only regularly stratified, for they frequently
alternate with strata of granular marble, but the Strata divide into thin Lamellae which gives a
shattered & shivery appearance to their declivities. Mountains of Argillaceous Slate participate
of these external characters, but are much more favourable to vegetation.

It is necessary to remark that the term Mountain is not used here in its most limited Sense.

The study of the characteristical forms of mountains in relation to the strata which they
contain is usefull moreover to the Navigator as well as the Geologist by pointing out those
situations where he is most likely to find water. Calcareous mountains for instance are re-
markable for the paucity of their springs and for the saline nature of them, but mountains of
Gneiss[,] Micaceous Slate and Argillaceous Slate abound at every stage of their elevation in
sources of the purest water. Calcareous mountains too discharge their collected water from a few
situations at their bases, usually at no great distance from the sea and generally on a level with it.
Volcanic countries are still more destitute of springs of potable water than even calcareous.

On a nearer view of the strata of mountains other characters occur, which point out the nature
and value of their contents & the utility of farther research.
Some for instance are metalliferous & others not.

There are some which are observed to contain only a limited number of the known metallic
substances and there are some metallic substances which are found in certain strata only.

Precious stones too are probably generated in some peculiar rocks, of which in some instances

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 41

they are known to form a constituent part. We may add to these observations that certain Strata
point out in an infallible manner the vicinity of Coal, Rock Salt, Alum and other valuable mineral
substances. Nevertheless, the Strata which are productive of Metals are by no means in every
situation of the Globe equally metalliferous. Granit for instance and calcareous Strata are
generally destitute of metallic contents.

Again, the more recently formed Strata seldom contain the noble metals, unless it be in an
alluvial state, which is the result of accident. As for the value of a newly discovered country
abounding in metals or precious stones; that will depend upon the facility of Colonization upon
the favourable circumstances of the ground in respect to mining labour & machinery and upon
the abundance of timber and fuel.
The most flattering indications of Metals however often prove fallacious.

It may be usefull to remark in this place that certain metals are always found in their perfect
state and others always oxydated or mineralized; many however are found both in the one state
and the other.

Also, that some metals are found only in the situations where they were generated and that others
are equally found in situations where they have been removed by accident.

The first metal known to unpolish'd nations, is Copper, not because it is the most abundant,
but because in a pure state it more often occurs than any other and in situations perhaps more
accessible.

The next is Gold, which is easily collected by the inhabitants of many unpolish'd countries in the
beds of torrents & rivers when exposed by the heavy falls of rain.

An effort of Art & much Labour were required to reduce Iron to a state fit for use. It appears
therefore to have laid long unknown and neglected. Gold & Copper then are the only metals
which are likely to be found in the possession of the natives of those countries which will be
visited but more generally their use is supplied by hard stones which the natives have found the
means of shaping into instruments of war and of fashioning into ornaments of dress. A sort of
Lava is applied by the South Sea islanders to the former and Jade to the latter. The precious
stones if known to them are neglected on account of their diminutive size and perhaps on account
of the impossibility of perforating such hard bodies.

In countries so remote and uncivilized, Discoveries of this kind are not likely to be of much
utility and are chiefly interesting to the Geologist who is desirous of learning whether the mineral
productions of that extremity of the Globe are analogous to those of our own and how far in
respect to the mineral kingdom Nature has been uniform or capricious in her operations.

It is this point of view which ought particularly to be chosen by the Scientifical Gentlemen who
are employed in this expedition. The Task assigned to them being Mineralogical Geography.
After an accurate description & delineation of the face of the countries which they visit they will
be required to give us some account of their constituent Strata, so far at least as the opportunities
which they shall have for information, will admit of.

A collection of well chosen specimens too, will be considered as indispensibly necessary for the
correction & confirmation of their observations.

In the process of observing, a variety of circumstances deserve to be noted which those who are
little versed in the Science of Geology may neglect from their apparent unimportance and which
those who are not in the habit of observing may overlook. It will be useful 1 therefore to state what
these circumstances are.

Ridges of Mountains are observed to be composed of very different Strata from those which
constitute the intermediate Plains.

The Strata in each seperate chain of non-volcanic Mountains follow each other in a certain
order.

This order must be traced and investigated. If the bulk of elevated ground is considerable, it will
be found to consist of a central ridge and of one or more parralel and subordinate ridges which
are easily discriminated by their forms and by their constituent Strata.

The exterior or lowermost ridge usually consists of the more recently formed Strata, the next in
succession of the metalliferous and the third or central ridge of the oldest which are often

42 T. G. VALLANCE AND D. T. MOORE

granitical. But these three will be more or less mixed; the strata of the second ridge for instance
will often be found imposed on those of the central and the strata of the first ridge on those of the
second.

These observations however are applicable only to such large chains of mountains as cheifly
determine the forms of countries, for the smaller chains which intersect them are by no means so
composite.

Nor is it to be inferred from what has been said of the larger chains, that the oldest Strata are
constantly to be met with in the most elevated positions; on the contrary, they often constitute
the basis of maritime countries & islands. Elevation therefore is no just Criterion of the relative
age of the Strata but Infraposition.

For that which is subjacent to every other stratified mass must be the oldest and that which
covers every other must be the most recent. As the Mountains (even the Granitical) are stratified,
it is easy to ascertain how far the Strata have been moved out of their original horizontal
position.

In general they are observed to rise and fall towards the central ridge to which they appertain, but
in no very uniform manner. It will be usefull to attend very particularly to this fact.
To this inclination of the Strata and their necessary disruption we are principally indebted for the
means of exploring their contents and their relative position. The principal Vales owe probably
their origin to such revolutions. If a portion of mountainous country so circumstanced be very
regularly stratified the strata will shew both the degree and the direction of their inclination in the
general form of the superficies, but some mountains have such an irregular & imperfect stratifi-
cation that no Criterion of this sort can be taken from them.

The most instructive examples in this way are furnish'd by the compound stratified mountains,
some of which will probably occur in the course of the voyage.

It is owing to the changes which have taken place at very remote periods, in the form and
arrangement of the Strata and to the subsequent operation of floods that we find their fractured
contents removed to such a distance in the beds of rivers and in the soil of vallies the inspection of
which may be considered as the first preliminary step to a knowledge of the constituent Strata of
a country.

To these situations above every other, in the onset of his enquiries, the traveller is referr'd for
Geological information. They will be found singularly instructive in regard to the productions of
those parts of the interior which he has not the means of visiting.

The discovery of precious stones and of metallic substances must cheifly be expected in such
situations. Of the latter, the most prevalent are Tin & Gold. All these may be detected by their
specific gravity and therefore will be found collected in the lowest beds of these alluvial depo-
sitions. The force of torrents indeed often expose them but more generally they are discovered in
mining countries by regular excavations. The more valuable parts of the sand are then extracted
by Elutrition, the particles subsiding in the water according to their proportionate size and their
specific Gravity: but much depends upon the dexterity with which this operation is conducted
and on the impliments that are made use of for this purpose.

If the Gentlemen who are employed in this expedition had been more in the habit of pursuing
these enquiries, a much greater variety of important matter might be pointed out to their
attention and many more usefull hints might be given for directing their observations.

It remains now for the writer to give a few instructions for collecting specimens of the mineral
productions of these new countries, a point of the utmost importance in respect to the verification
of the discoveries which will be made in this line.

In the composition of the sand or the shingle of the sea beach will be found the more indurated
contents of the neighbouring Strata, which although worn smooth by attrition are not to be
rejected unless better specimens can be obtained from their native beds.
The substances more commonly found in such situations are Agates[,] Jaspers[,] Calcedonys
and Quarz.

From the inspection of the Sea beach some judgement may be formed of the contents of the
neighbouring cliffs & hills.

GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE VOYAGE OF HMS INVESTIGATOR IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS, 1801-5 43

The Cliffs present the most striking and instructive Phoenomena. The metallic substances are
often exposed there to view in their native beds or veins.

In the choice of specimens both of the rock and of the substances which it encloses, care must be
taken to select such as shew the characters by which they are distinguish'd, in their most perfect
state. They must be taken therefore from the more solid & undecayed parts of the mass and must
be sufficiently numerous to exhibit all the varieties of grain[,] form and colour. The most
convenient size & shape is an oblong of the dimensions of a mans hand and nearly of the same
thickness.

Immediately after being broken off they ought to be protected from the moisture of the hand and
enveloped in paper, numbered & deposited in a barril. The numbers are to be continued until the
barril is full when the barril too is numbered or lettered.

The numbers on the papered specimens refer to a short catalogue which records the places where
the specimens were found together with such circumstances immediately connected with them as
are thought worthy of being subjoined, but as for any general information on this subject it must
be drawn up in a seperate form after the country has been more fully investigated and the
dispersed local information acquired in repeated excursions has been collected into a Focus.
The Miner who will regularly attend the party upon these occasions must be employed in
breaking the specimens with his Sledge hammer and in carrying them in a large leathern pocket
appendant like a Gamekeepers bag to his side. It is hoped that he will generally be pretty well
loaded.

If the specimens are well chosen, that is, if they are of the form above prescribed, taken from the
more solid parts of the rock exhibiting a fresh fracture on all sides, unsullied by the touch, every
object of their collection will be attained, but if these circumstances from their apparent triviality
are not carefully attended to, the labour bestowed on the collection will be of little utility.

Manuscript submitted for publication 2 November 1978

The Earth Generated and Anatomized
by William Hobbs

An early eighteenth century theory of the earth
Edited with an introduction by Roy Porter

March 1 98 1 . 1 58pp. 6 plates, 8 text figures

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)

Historical Series Vol. 8 Paper covers, £16.00

Wherein is shewn What the Chaos was: How and when the Oyster-shells,
Cockle-shells, and all the other Marine productions, were brought upon, and
incorporated in the Rocks and Mountains of the Earth. Proving that it was not at,
or by the Deluge, as is Vulgarly Supposed.

Also

Why and When the Said Hills and Mountains were raised. As also shewing not
only the certain Cause of the Ebbing and Flowing of the Tides, But even the Two
places where they are once in XV Dayes originally Moved ; and where they
ultimately meet each other. By which, as also by diverse Arguments, the Vulgar
Notion of the Moon's Governing them, is fully confuted.

Together with

Many other Philosophical Doctrines and Discoveries; Suitable to such a Subject;
not before advanced.

(From Hobb's title page)

The Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) is published in five Series,
Zoology, Entomology, Botany, Geology, and Historical. Details and complete lists
are free on request.

Publication Sales British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road London SW7 5BD

Titles to be published in Volume 10

Geological aspects of the voyage of HMS Investigator in Australian Waters,
1801-5.

By T. G. Vallance & D. T. Moore.

Seventy years of research in mineralogy and crystallography in the Department of
Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), under the Keepership of Story-
Maskelyne, Fletcher, and Prior: 1857-1927.

By W. Campbell Smith.

The geological researches of Dr Thomas Horsfield in Indonesia 1801-19.

By John Bastin & D. T. Moore.

An account of those described rock collections in the British Museum (Natural
History) made before 1918; with a provisional catalogue arranged by continent.

By D. T. Moore.

The British Museum and geological communication in the nineteenth century : the
Ellen B. Woodward autograph collection at McGill University.

By S. Sheets-Pyenson.

Typeset by Santype International Ltd., Salisbury and Printed by Billing & Sons, Ltd., Guildford

Bulletin of the (\7^

\ 4* LIBRA

British Museum (Natural History

Seventy years of research in
mineralogy and crystallography in the
Department of Mineralogy,
British Museum (Natural History),
under the Keepership of Story-Maskelyne,
Fletcher, and Prior: 1857-1927

W. Campbell Smith

Historical series

Vol 1 No 2 25 February 1982

The Bulletin of the British Museum {Natural History), instituted in 1949, is issued in four
scientific series, Botany, Entomology, Geology (incorporating Mineralogy) and Zoology,
and an Historical series.

Papers in the Bulletin are primarily the results of research carried out on the unique and
ever-growing collections of the Museum, both by the scientific staff of the Museum and by
specialists from elsewhere who make use of the Museum's resources. Many of the papers are
works of reference that will remain indispensable for years to come.

Parts are published at irregular intervals as they become ready, each is complete in itself,
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World List abbreviation: Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1982

ISSN 0068-2306 Historical series

VollONo2pp45-74
British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5BD Issued 25 February 1982

2 5FEBJ982

Seventy years of research in mineralogy and
crystallography in the Department of Mineralogy,
British Museum (Natural History), under the
Keepership of Story-Maskelyne, Fletcher, and Prior :
1857-1927

W. Campbell Smith

=~M<

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London
SW7 5BD

Research in mineralogy and crystallography based on the great collections in the Department of
Mineralogy began only after the appointment of Professor Nevil Story-Maskelyne as Keeper of
Minerals in 1857.

N. S. Maskelyne, as he was generally known, had taken his degree in mathematics at Oxford in
1845; and he had also studied chemistry and conducted further study for a time in Faraday's
laboratory at the Royal Institution. Since 1850 he had been acting as deputy to William Buck-
land whose health was beginning to fail and he succeeded him as Reader in Mineralogy at Oxford
after Buckland's death in 1856. This appointment fortunately did not debar him from accepting
the post of Keeper of Minerals at the British Musem offered him in the following year. He
occupied both positions with distinction until 1880 when he resigned his museum appointment,
his father having died the previous year leaving him heavy responsibilities on the family estate in
Wiltshire (Spencer, 1911b).

Maskelyne's predecessor as Keeper of Minerals was Charles Konig, who had become Keeper
of Minerals (including secondary fossils) in 1837, when the old Natural History Department of
which he had had charge since 1813 was divided into three: Botany, Zoology, and Mineralogy.
Konig had always devoted much of his time to the care of the mineral collections; however, he
had neither the opportunity nor the facilities for any crystallographical or chemical research
beyond tests needed for identification. In the galleries and rooms occupied by the mineral
collections facilities for laboratory work seem to have been minimal and apparatus almost
non-existent. Maskelyne overcame some of these difficulties and he and his few assistants, never
more than one at a time, achieved much in descriptive mineralogy and crystallography. No
artificial light was allowed in the old buildings, except in a locked lantern brought on request by
an attendant, and Konig had complained that he could not use his reflective goniometer either in
his room or in the gallery. Maskelyne installed a heliostat so, at least when the sun shone, a
steady light source was available (Campbell Smith, 1969).

At first the only help Maskelyne had was one 'Third Class Attendant', Thomas Davies, the
son of William Davies who was an Attendant in the Department of Geology. Thomas Davies was
twenty when appointed to the Museum staff, having already spent four years at sea. He knew
little about scientific mineralogy, but he developed a flair for remembering and recognizing the
important characters of specimens and under Maskelyne's tuition became a very competent
curator (Fletcher, 1893c).

It is hard to over-estimate Maskelyne's influence, for it pervaded the whole of the seventy years
under review, and this is scarcely surprising since he at the British Museum and Oxford, and W.
H. Miller at Cambridge, together kept mineralogy and crystallography alive in England in the
third quarter of the nineteenth century. The recruitment, in later years, of Fletcher, Lewis, Miers,
Prior, Spencer, Herbert Smith, Campbell Smith, and Mountain — all Oxford or Cambridge
men — was one direct consequence.

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Hist. Ser.) 10 (2): 45-74 Issued 25 February 1982

46 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

Maskelyne's decision to adopt Gustav Rose's system of classification (1852) for the arrange-
ment of the mineral collection — a task which must have occupied the greater part of his early
years at the Museum — together with his interests in optical and morphological crystallography,
and chemical analysis, determined the direction of research, for it revealed many gaps in the
collections and deficiencies in the descriptions of mineral species in the literature. It was not until
1927, when Bannister was appointed to develop in the Department the application of X-ray
diffraction techniques to minerals, that there was a significant addition to the methods of investi-
gation initiated by the perceptive Maskelyne. By 1863 he had completed the rearrangement and
was able to issue a ' Catalogue of Minerals with references to the table cases ... in the British
Museum '; a new edition was published in the following year. Later editions were entitled ' Index
to the Collection of Minerals . . .' and 'A Guide to the Collection of Minerals, British Museum'
had appeared in 1862.

In 1862 Maskelyne had invited Viktor von Lang of Vienna to join the Museum staff. Von
Lang, then a young man of 24, was a Privat-Dozent in physical crystallography in Vienna. After
two years at the British Museum he returned to Vienna and became Professor of Physics there in
1865. He published his Lehrbuch der Krystallographie in 1866 and, one supposes, exchanged ideas
freely with Maskelyne who also had Treatise on Crystallography in hand at the same time,
although regrettably, he did not publish his (Maskelyne, 1895) until thirty years later (Spencer,
19216). Maskelyne and von Lang jointly published several notes on minerals from Cornwall and
elsewhere and he also described a new mineral, langite, named for von Lang (Maskelyne, 1864a).
Von Lang himself contributed notes on the crystalline form of lanthanite; on new forms in
mesotype (natrolite) measured on crystals labelled brevicite; on malachite, describing crystal
forms and optical properties; on some artificial crystals of gold, sent by Dr Percy; and on some
combinations of eudialyte (Maskelyne & von Lang, 1863a). In the following year, 1864, his
Mineralogical Notes dealt with gadolinite; and with gismondine and herschelite, a variety of
chabazite in which he demonstrated the pseudo-hexagonal twinning (Maskelyne & von Lang,
1864).

These ' Notes ' were mainly descriptions of the crystal forms of the minerals discussed, with
records of the measurements of angles. In some cases the only crystals available were very small
and in his first paper on connellite Maskelyne described how they overcame the difficulty of
measuring them; the same specimen of connellite, from St Day United Mines, was the subject of a
subsequent X-ray study by Bannister et al. (1950). Noting that some crystals were very small (less
than about 2.5 mm long) and richly facetted, he wrote: 'it would be almost impossible to obtain
measurements of any value by the ordinary reflecting goniometer. But by means of a small
plano-convex lens in front of a small telescope with magnifying power about nine times attached
to the goniometer, and which converts that telescope into a sort of microscope of low power, it is
not difficult to obtain measurements of considerable exactitude' (Maskelyne & von Lang, 1863a).
The idea of using an auxiliary lens in front of the telescope is probably attributable to Mitscher-
lich (1843), and von Lang, as a result of his work at the British Museum, devised an improved
goniometer which he described in 1876.

After von Lang's return to Vienna there was an interval of three years during which Maskelyne
worked alone and published several papers on rare minerals from Cornwall, describing two of
these, lyellite and waringtonite, as new minerals (Maskelyne 18646). They are now known to be
synonyms of langite and brochantite. In 1877 he published three notes on the crystallography
and optical characters of the new mineral ludlamite (Maskelyne 1877a,fr,c), described by Field
(1877) and in the following year he announced the discovery of another new Cornish mineral,
liskeardite (Maskelyne, 1878).

By 1863 and 1864 Maskelyne had begun publishing the results of his work on the meteorite
collection and he contributed in addition to his Notes with von Lang a short paper on ' aerolites '
(Maskelyne, 1863), and one on 'meteoritic stones' (Maskelyne, 1872c). He continued this work
on meteorites using thin-sections and a Powell and Lealand microscope purchased in 1863 to
which he had had fitted a polarizer and analyzer and a rotating stage, and in 1870 and 1871 he
published four important papers on the mineral constituents of meteorites, which he had read
before the Royal Society (Maskelyne, 1870fo,c; 1871a,/?). His last paper on meteorites before he

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 47

left the Museum was a brief note on the Rowton siderite which had been seen to fall on 20 April
1876; it remains the only iron meteor seen to fall in Great Britain (Maskelyne, 1876).

At about this time Maskelyne turned his attention to the study and identification of precious
stones. He prepared the 'Report on Jewelry and Precious Stones' for the Paris Universal Exhi-
bition (Maskelyne, 1868) and later catalogued the Marlborough gems at Blenheim Palace; this
was privately printed (Maskelyne, 1870a).

In 1867 a chemical laboratory was fitted up in a nearby house, 46 Great Russell Street, and
Walter Flight was appointed as an additional Assistant. This tradition of chemical analysis
continued in direct succession to Prior, Mountain (briefly), Hey and on to the present day. Flight
was a highly qualified chemist, having studied in the Universities of Halle and Heidelberg and
worked for a time in Professor A. W. Hofmann's laboratory in Berlin.

Maskelyne and Flight together published a series of fifteen Mineralogical Notes in the Journal
of the Chemical Society (1871, 1872, 1874) dealing with some sixteen minerals. Several of the
specimens were submitted by R. Tailing, the mineral dealer of Lostwithiel: some were known to
be from Cornwall and probably all of them were, but Tailing did not always ' reveal ' his localities.
The specimens were of vivianite, cronstedtite, ' francolite ', a mineral described as prasine (a
synonym for pseudomalachite), and a specimen believed to be the woodwardite of Church but
shown by Maskelyne and Flight to consist of langite with 'one or more hydrated aluminium
silicates '. The ' francolite ' was shown to be a fluor-apatite but not the same as the francolite from
Wheal Franco, although Dana quotes Flight's analysis as being that of francolite (Dana, 1892,
pp. 765-6). Another analysed specimen from Cornwall is uranite from near Redruth, but
the analysis shows 2.5% of bismuth oxide and only about 4% CuO (Maskelyne & Flight,
1872).

Andrewsite, another Cornish mineral, was described in the last of this series of Mineralogical
Notes, and so also was chalcosiderite to which andrewsite is very close (Maskelyne, 18726,
1875a). Maskelyne gave measurements and a drawing of a crystal of chalcosiderite, both re-
produced by Dana (1892, p. 854) quoting analyses from an earlier paper (Maskelyne & Flight,
1871).

Other specimens reported on are: pisolitic iron ore from North Wales and Anglesey; Iona
stone, 'miscalled jade'; caledonite from Leadhills, Wanlockhead, and lanarkite; opal from Wad-
dela Plain, Abyssinia, collected by Mr Masham on Napier's expedition in 1868; 'isopyre' from
South Africa; and percylite probably from the same locality; and vanadinite. On a small crystal
of percylite Maskelyne succeeded in obtaining a measurement of three planes in a zone giving
angles corresponding with those of the rhombic dodecahedron (Maskelyne & Flight, 1872).

One of the earliest of these notes (no. 7) (Maskelyne & Flight, 1871), gives an analysis of a
mineral, ' meerschaluminite ', described by Major W. A. Ross (1869), which is shown to be near
pholerite, a variety of kaolinite. Flight's last mineralogical paper was on two new minerals,
evigtokite and liskeardite (Flight, 1883); he died in 1885 at the early age of forty-four.

Reading through these notes of over a century ago, it may seem that they are now of little
importance. However, most of Flight's analyses were quoted by Dana in the early editions of his
System of Mineralogy and some of them were still the only ones available when he published his
sixth edition in 1892.

The next addition to Maskelyne's staff was one of his own Oxford pupils, William James
Lewis. Lewis had worked in the Department as an 'outside worker' in 1872 and was appointed
an Assistant in 1875; but he had to resign in 1877 because of lung trouble. By way of effecting an
improvement in his condition he joined an expedition to Spitsbergen. On his return he went to
Cambridge to act as deputy to Professor W. H. Miller, whose health was failing; he succeed
Miller as Professor in 1881 and occupied the chair for 45 years until his death in 1926.

His published work during his period at the Museum consisted of papers on glaucodote,
sphene, gold, and barium nitrate which were published in the Philosophical Magazine and
reprinted in the Proceedings of the Crystallological Society of which Lewis was the first, and last,
Secretary (Lewis, 1877a,/?). A notebook kept by Lewis when an 'outside worker', dated 1872,
records measurements on glaucodote, and on pyrite and cobalt glance (cobaltite). His observa-
tion books from May 1875 to 1876 record measurements on gold, copper, sulphur, skutterudite,

48 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

mispickel, (arsenopyrite), argentite, redruthite (chalcosine), blende, greenockite, galena, and cal-
cite.

He was an enthusiastic measurer of crystals and to work with him on a difficult crystal was an
absorbing occupation. He worked with a student's Wollaston vertical circle goniometer in the old
mineral gallery in the Free School Lane buildings and used as his light source the signal in the
window opposite illuminated by a tilting mirror on the window sill outside. I never saw him use
such a modern piece of apparatus as a horizontal circle goniometer. Spencer, in his obituary
notice of Lewis, said of him ' To his credit he made no great burden for the bibliographer. In the
preparation of his excellent text book on geometrical crystallography published in 1899, he
devoted much time and infinite pains ' (Spencer, 1927a).

Lazarus Fletcher, who was to be Maskelyne's successor as Keeper of Minerals and ultimately
Director of the Natural History Museum, was appointed an Assistant in the Mineral Department
in 1878. He was a mathematician already with a distinguished career at Oxford, a Fellow of
University College, a Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory under Professor R. B. Clifton,
and Millard Lecturer in Physics at Trinity College. His life and work have been admirably
described by Sir Henry Miers (1921) in a biographical notice. Miers has told how through
Fletcher's chance scanning of the pages of Groth's Physikalische Krystallographie he became
interested in crystallography and was soon brought to the notice of Professor Story-Maskelyne.
There was a vacancy in the Department of Mineralogy in the British Museum caused by Lewis'
early retirement and Maskelyne suggested that Fletcher should be a candidate. He was appointed
an Assistant in 1878, and succeeded Maskelyne as Keeper on the latter's retirement in June 1880.

Fletcher's first task was to supervise the removal of the collections from Bloomsbury to the
new Natural History Museum in South Kensington. This commenced in July 1880 and lasted
until the new Museum was opened to the public in April 1881. During the move Fletcher had the
assistance of H. M. Platnauer and Thomas Davies. In the first few years after the move of the
collections Fletcher can have had little time for any crystallographic or mineralogical research.
He had published an 'Index to the Collection of Minerals', and a 'Guide to the Collection of
Meteorites' in 1881, and had completed his guide and ' Introduction to the Study of Minerals' in
1884. However, while still at Bloomsbury he had begun work on the 'Crystallographic Cat-
alogue' which Maskelyne, no doubt influenced by the purchase in 1860 of the Allan-Greg
collection, started in 1875 as a 'scientific catalogue of the whole collection, with crystallographic
descriptions and chemical analyses of those specimens the composition of which it is desirable
more accurately to determine ' — as he himself described it in his annual return for that year
(Campbell Smith, 1952). All new recruits to the Department (until about 1950) were assigned
work in connection with this catalogue and it set the pattern of, and provided the material for,
much mineralogical research.

The results of Fletcher's work for this catalogue, beginning with the native elements and simple
sulphides, resulted in a series of Crystallographic Notes published in the Philosophical Magazine
and reprinted as part of the Proceedings of the Crystallological Society. The first of these notes
described crystals of copper, silver, gold, bismuth, sulphur, nagyagite, and realgar (Fletcher,
1880/?) followed, after the move, by a description of a twin of zircon (Fletcher, 1881), a note on
crystals of skutterudite (Fletcher, 1882a), and an important paper on copper pyrite twins (Flet-
cher, 18826). In addition to this work on minerals Fletcher wrote an important paper on 'The
dilatation of crystals on change of temperature' (Fletcher, 1880a), published before his first
crystallographic notes. Miers (1921) has given an account of the interest aroused by this paper
and of how Fletcher set about a fresh study of the whole problem, work which was interrupted by
illness but nevertheless finished and, with Miers' help, published (Fletcher, 1883).

Later, Fletcher returned to a kindred subject on which he could use his mathematical ability
and his training in physics. This produced what Miers described as ' the highest achievement of
his scientific life', the remarkable memoir on 'The optical indicatrix and the transmission of light
through crystals' (Fletcher 1891), published also in book form in 1892a, and in German trans-
lation in 1893/.

In 1886 Fletcher produced an ' Introduction to the study of meteorites ' with a list of meteorites
represented in the collection and from then on such time as he had to spare from the management

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 49

of the Department was devoted to the description and analysis of the meteorites, and to main-
taining records of the place and circumstances of each fall or find.

However, he did make several further contributions to descriptive mineralogy. His paper 'On
cubic crystals of graphitic carbon', which he named ' cliftonite ', was the outcome of his study of
the Youndegin meteorite (Fletcher, 1887a and b). These little cubes are now known to be
pseudomorphs in graphite after a cubic mineral, probably diamond (Hey, 1938; Grenville- Wells,
1952).

Fletcher and Miers (1887) supplied chemical analyses of the feldspar crystals from Kilimanjaro
sent by Sir Harry Johnston, and showed that they contained over 4.5% potash. Miers, re-
describing the crystals and their optical properties, showed them to belong to the group which
included the anorthoclase of Rosenbusch (Miers, 1886; Fletcher & Miers, 1887). It is interesting
to note that J. J. H. Teall had observed that these crystals resembled the feldspar insets in
rhombenporphyr from Christiania. In the same year, Fletcher identified and described crystals of
cuprite and cerussite formed on and around Roman coins buried for about 15 centuries (Fletcher,
1887c).

In 1889 a specimen of percylite from a mine in Atacama attracted Fletcher's attention, because
of its rarity. Other specimens from the same mine were obtained and, in addition to many
interesting lead and copper minerals, he picked out some very small hexagonal crystals, less than
1 mm in diameter, some of which he succeeded in measuring. From his measurements he ident-
ified them as caracolite, a new mineral described in the previous year by Professor Websky. He
also found in a cavity less than 2 mm in diameter some minute, elongated, colourless crystals.
Though less than 1 mm in length and about ^ mm wide, he obtained good measurements of these
and provided excellent drawings. From simple wet and dry tests carried out with great skill on
single crystals, he concluded that they might be an oxychloride of lead, but could not correlate
the angles with those of any known mineral of that composition. Believing it to be necessary 'for
purposes of reference at least' to give a name to it he named it daviesite, in honour of his
colleague Thomas Davies (Fletcher, 1889); the crystals have recently been identified as hemimor-
phite (P. G. Embrey, pers. comm., 1963).

Fletcher returned once more to work on rare and new minerals in 1892 when Mr Joseph
Baddeley offered to present to the Museum one of the eight or nine pebbles of the new mineral
recently named geikielite by Allen B. Dick of the Geological Survey (1893; paper read 14 June
1892). Fletcher noticed among these few pebbles one which showed some crystal faces and this he
selected for the Museum. He succeeded in measuring the faces and determining the optical
properties and, by a long series of qualitative tests, proved the material to be zirconia. He named
this new mineral baddeleyite (Fletcher, 18926; 1893a,6). By an odd coincidence, Dr E. Hussak
had described, under the name brazilite, crystals occuring in jacupirangite from Sao Paulo and at
first believed to be orthite but later shown, by Professor Blomstrand, to be 'almost pure zir-
conia '. Crystal measurements had confirmed the identity of brazilite and baddeleyite and Dr
Hussak withdrew the former name (Hussak, 1892; 1895).

Fletcher's later work was almost wholly devoted to meteorites but he also wrote several
articles on the precious stones of the Bible (Fletcher, 1893e), the principal one being in a guide to
an exhibition at the Museum in connection with the tercentenary of the publication of the
Authorized Version in 161 1 (Fletcher, 191 1).

Although not trained as a geologist or petrologist he wrote in 1895 'An introduction to the
study of rocks '. This gave references to an exhibit in the Mineral Gallery and was also a guide to
the exhibited series of rocks. Fletcher described it as an attempt 'to give, from a Museum point of
view, a simple sketch of the relationship of rocks indicating at the same time all the more
important characters and pointing out their significance '. It ran to six editions.

Henry Alexander Miers had joined the Department in 1882. He had gone up to Oxford from
Eton with a classical scholarship but he read mathematics as well and, later, hearing that there
was to be a vacancy for an additional Assistant in Mineralogy, he decided to read for that also.
He was the only pupil in the subject at that time and Professor Maskelyne used to go up for
week-ends to give him ' lectures ' in crystallography and mineralogy. Miers evidently worked to
good purpose for he defeated his only serious competitor, Frederick Sanderson, later to become

50 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

the famous Headmaster of Oundle. Miers had also spent two vacations in Cambridge studying
there with W. J. Lewis, and had worked under Groth at Strasbourg for another three months.
Thus he arrived at the British Museum tolerably well equipped and was immediately appointed
as a First Class Assistant.

Walter Flight, the chemist, died only three years after Miers' appointment; he was a great loss
to the Department. Fortunately the vacancy was filled by the appointment in 1887 of George
Thurland Prior, who had graduated from Magdalen College, Oxford, with first class Honours in
both Physics and Chemistry in 1886. He had also studied chemistry for some months with A.
Classen at Aachen. Prior was put in charge of the chemical laboratory and at once began
collaboration with Fletcher and Miers, undertaking the analytical work on the minerals and
meteorites which they were investigating. This collaboration continued with excellent results
when L. J. Spencer joined the staff in 1894.

Whereas Fletcher, as his contribution to the ' Crystallographic Catalogue' had studied the
elements and sulphides, Miers seems to have started his part of the catalogue with sulpharsenites,
sulphantimonites, and so forth, and this led to his early paper 'On the crystalline form of
meneghinite' (Miers, 1884/?), which was followed by 'The crystallography of bournonite', read
before the Mineralogical Society in 1884 (Miers, 1884d).

Meneghinite was known only as a very small crystal with few end faces, difficult to measure
satisfactorily. Using a Fuess horizontal-circle goniometer Miers succeeded in measuring several
crystals with good results. He showed that the mineral crystallizes in the orthorhombic system
but that its parameters could not be made to agree with those of jordanite, although the two
minerals were analogous in composition. Miers pointed out, however, that there was a relation-
ship between his meneghinite parameters and those of stephanite, 4[Ag 5 SbS 4 ]. The formula now
proposed for meneghinite is 2[CuPb 13 Sb 7 S 2 4], jordanite being 2[Pb 14 As 7 S2 4 ]. It is considered
that the small amount of Cu, about 2%, is an essential constituent (Berry & Moddle, 1941).

The paper on bournonite took, as Professor Watts remarked in his Jubilee Address to the
Mineralogical Society, a monographic form. It contained a list of all previous publications on the
mineral, as well as a complete list of crystal forms with comments and including 29 new forms
found by Miers during his investigation, all with supporting measurements. His table of inter-
facial angles gave a list of over 1000 angles and the paper ended with a full discussion of the twin
growths, particularly of the wheel-shaped groups from Herodsfoot, and the Radelerz from
Kapnik, all well represented in the British Museum Collection.

After the completion of this paper Miers seems to have devoted his research work to the group
of 'red silver ores' (Rothgultigerz), of which the most important members are proustite and
pyrargyrite. The main paper was not read until May 1888 but in the previous year he and Prior
read a paper 'On a specimen of proustite containing antimony' (Miers & Prior, 1887). Miers had
also used some of his collected data on proustite and pyrargyrite to illustrate a short paper ' On
the use of the gnomonic projection' (Miers, 1887). The paper, with Prior, was a study of 'a
magnificent piece of proustite from Chanarcillo, Chili'; brilliant lustrous prisms in a radiating
group. The sensitivity of this specimen to light is such that it has to be kept in the dark. Miers
obtained good measurements on three scalenohedral crystals whilst Prior made analyses and
determined the specific gravity. The analyses were made on two samples, one from the base of the
specimen and another on the measured crystals and other small crystals of similar appearance.

The authors concluded that the antimony is very unevenly distributed in the specimen: 'it is
even conceivable that the surface of the crystals may contain no antimony; but however that may
be, it is certain that in the crystals here analysed the presence of more than one per cent of
antimony has no appreciable effect upon the rhombohedron angle'. Whether this always held
good would perhaps be decided, they suggested, by the examination of a large number of
specimens, a task on which the authors were then engaged.

The completion of this task resulted in the great paper modestly entitled 'Contributions to the
study of pyrargyrite and proustite' (Miers & Prior, 1888). It was on similar lines to the bournon-
ite paper but there were now two related species to consider and a vast number of measurements
of angles and forms recorded in the published papers by earlier authors and by Miers himself.
Summarizing their results, they show that proustite and pyrargyrite are two distinct species with

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857 1927 51

sufficient differences in the rhombohedron angle, specific gravity, colour and streak, to enable
them to be distinguished. Pyrargyrite is shown to be hemimorphic and proustite probably so.
Both species are strictly rhombohedral: 'no typical forms occur in both the direct and inverse
positions'. Typical forms are defined as those which occur as bright, independent faces. Miers
gives lists of typical forms for each of the two species: there are 36 for pyrargyrite and only 12 for
proustite; of these 8 are common to both species. Some of the typical forms have rather high
indices; in pyrargyrite there are six with one or more indices higher than 8; in proustite only one
(13.2.3). Twin growths are studied very closely and the laws stated; there are five twin laws of
which three operate in both species. The last part of the crystallographic study is devoted to
measurements of striated (and curved) zones and of vicinal faces, and the distribution of the
vicinal faces is discussed.

Prior made very careful analyses of fifteen selected specimens, and determined the specific
gravity of each. For the analysed specimens the rhombohedral angle also is recorded and it is
concluded that ' the variations in the rhombohedral angle among the whole series of pyrargyrites
analysed fall within the irregular variations on individual specimens, and cannot be attributed to
the presence of varying quantities of arsenic; the same is true of proustite containing antimony'.
And further: 'no certain connection can be traced between the presence of arsenic in pyrargyrite
and the habit or appearance of the crystals; specimens of identical appearance sometimes contain
a small percentage of arsenic and are sometimes free from it; and some pyrargyrite of rather light
colour is found to contain no arsenic' (Miers & Prior, 1888, pp. 99-100).

The last paper in this series, ' the red silver ores ', was ' On xanthoconite and rittingerite, with
remarks on the red silvers' (Miers & Prior, 1893). In the meantime Miers had published short
papers on polybasite and aikinite (of Chapman) (Miers, 1889/)), on stephanite, demonstrating its
hemimorphism, and kaolinite (Miers, 1890a), and on a new mineral, sanguinite, a sulpharsenite
of silver (Miers, 18906).

Xanthoconite, 16[Ag 3 AsS 3 ], and rittingerite were believed to be two distinct minerals but
neither had been correctly determined in respect of composition, crystal form, or physical
characters. Miers made a careful study of both minerals, with the usual careful chemical analyses
by Prior, which showed that the two minerals have the same composition as far as could be
ascertained with the limited material available. A complete analysis of rittingerite was not
possible but silver was determined quantitatively on 3.8 mg and found to be practically identical
with the silver content of xanthoconite.

In the complete series of the red silvers the rhombohedral pair proustite and pyrargyrite
correspond to xanthoconite and fireblende (pyrostilpnite), which are monoclinic. Fireblende was
the only member of the series of which material was not available in the Museum collection for
as thorough an examination as had been made of the other members, but the data provided by
Luedecke (1882) were available. Miers observed 'that these two minerals, xanthoconite and
pyrostilpnite, present a very interesting example of isomorphism in the same system with differ-
ent orientation. They both crystallize in rhombic-shaped plates, having an angle of 54°, and
belonging to the monosymmetric system : but whereas in xanthoconite the plane of symmetry is
perpendicular to the plate and parallel to its longer diagonal, in fireblende it is parallel to the
plane of the plate'. These findings are confirmed by a much more recent study of the two
minerals, with X-ray measurements, by the late M. A. Peacock (1950).

It is interesting to note that for the determination of the optical properties of xanthoconite
Miers constructed a stage goniometer for the microscope; it was later manufactured by Trough-
ton & Simms. During this period and outside his official Museum duties, Miers was an instructor
in crystallography in the chemical department of the City & Guilds College, where he developed
a student's goniometer for use in his classes (Miers, 18916).

Miers' study of the vicinal faces in proustite and pyrargyrite aroused his interest in crystal
growth and, about 1892, he commenced a systematic study of the formation of crystal faces,
working at home and at night. A preliminary report on this work was made in a paper read to
Section C (Geology) of the British Association at its meeting at Oxford (Miers, 18946); all the
later work was carried out at Oxford where Miers had been appointed Waynflete Professor of
Mineralogy in 1895. The main results were presented to the Royal Society (Miers, 1903) but

52 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

work on crystal growth and related problems (parallel growths and spontaneous crystallizations)
was continued at Oxford for several years in conjunction with his students : Miss Florence Isaacs,
T. V. Barker, and J. Chevalier.

The paper read in 1894 was entitled 'A new method of measuring crystals and its application
to the measurement of the octahedral angle of potash alum and ammonium alum'. The alums
were known to show large variations in the octahedron angle, and it was also known that the
octahedron was often replaced by vicinal faces. Miers set out to ascertain ' whether progressive
variations can be traced during growth of a single crystal, and whether some or all of the
octahedron faces change their character in space if the crystal be held fixed during growth '.

To test these questions Miers designed an inverted goniometer with which he could measure
with great accuracy the faces in an octahedron zone while the alum crystal, fixed on a crystal
holder, was actually growing in a saturated solution of its own composition. The solution was
contained in a glass tank provided with parallel plate-glass sides. The tank could be raised or
lowered as required so that the crystal could be completely immersed in the solution while it was
being measured.

In order to determine the positions of the vicinal faces in relation to the octahedral face which
they are replacing he designed a micrometer eyepiece which could be fitted to the telescope of the
goniometer. Thus, when an eyepiece of sufficient strength showed that what appeared to be a
single image was in reality three over-lapping images formed by vicinal faces, the micrometer
eyepiece enabled the positions of each of the three vicinal faces to be established. From the
mutual inclinations of the vicinal faces it was possible to calculate accurately the octahedron
angle of the alum crystal; it was found to be 70° 3 if', and not to be subject to variation as had
been supposed from measurements made by the earlier worker, Reinhard Brauns, and others.

Miers also showed that the growth of the crystal does not take place by the deposition of
parallel plane layers but that new (vicinal) faces are constantly developed. Moreover, the vicinal
faces developed vary with the concentration of the solution in which they are grown and thus
give rise to variations in the measured angles observed and hitherto considered as anomalous.
Miers foresaw that ' a further study of the faces developed during the growth of crystals will . . .
lead to a better understanding of the reasons why a simple face like the octahedron should not be
a surface of equilibrium, and of the relations between the vicinal planes and the structure of the
crystal'.

The full results of this work on the growth of alums and of other cubic crystals were published
by the Royal Society (Miers, 1903). In the conclusions it is pointed out that the faces which
actually occur on a crystal are not those with simple indices, like (111), which have great reticular
density of ' particles ', but those with complex indices, like vicinal faces, which have very low
reticular density and that this is perhaps connected with the need for ' particles ' of the water of
solution to be able to escape from the growing crystal face.

Thomas Davies, who had been on the staff since 1857, the year of Story-Maskelyne's appoint-
ment as Keeper, died in 1892. The vacancy thus caused was not filled until 1 January 1894, when
Leonard James Spencer was appointed as an Assistant.

Spencer was highly qualified as a mineralogist and chemist. From Bradford, at the age of
sixteen he had obtained a Royal Exhibition to the Royal College of Science, Dublin, gaining first
class honours in chemistry in 1889. Proceeding then to Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, he
took Firsts in both parts of the Natural Sciences Tripos, taking geology for Part II and winning
the Harkness Scholarship in 1893. The examination for the vacancy in the Department of
Mineralogy was held that summer and Spencer was the successful candidate, the runner-up being
(Sir) William J. Pope, later to become Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge.

At the Keeper's request — was it nearly a command? — Spencer went to Munich to study for
three months under Professors Paul Groth and Weinschenk. This he did at his own expense, in
fact using the Harkness Scholarship money for the purpose. This study in Germany, undoubt-
edly very valuable, delayed his actual appointment by some three months and may have affected
his position in later years when it came to promotion to First Class Assistant.

Spencer began his part of the work on the Crystallographic Catalogue on the sulpharsenates
and sulphantimonates and in a little over a year, on 2 April 1895, he read a paper on enargite

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 53

2[Cu 3 AsS 4 ] (Spencer, 1895). This was drawn up on the lines of Miers' bournonite paper: a
listing of the previous literature; a list of known forms; measurements establishing new forms;
very careful, critical measurements of the prism angle, and of the angle (001) : (01 1) from which
the parameters were calculated; twinning, establishing (320) as the twin plane; and, then, a
description of the mineral clarite, proving its identity with enargite, and a discussion of the
several other minerals similar in composition to enargite. These are luzonite, which Spencer
showed might be a massive form of binnite, and regnolite, which he thought might also be
referred to binnite. The name regnolite is now regarded as a synonym of tennantite, and binnite a
variety of the same mineral.

This work on binnite initiated close collaboration with Prior on binnite, tennantite, tetra-
hedrite and the fahlerz (Prior & Spencer, 1899). In this paper the crystallography of binnite was
based on the examination of about 60 specimens obtained as a result of blasting operations in the
Binnenthal, and mostly supplied by R. H. Solly. Goniometric measurements were made on 24
crystals and nearly as many fragments of crystals, and Prior analysed eleven of the measured
crystals. Together these studies proved the identity of the binnite (of Des Cloizeaux) from Binn
with the Cornish tennantite and established the formula as Cu 3 AsS 3 . A partial analysis on two
crystals which showed a black streak instead of the usual chestnut brown gave Ag 4.77%, Fe
3.68%.

The second part of this paper, read on 20 June 1899, on the composition of the fahlerz gave an
introduction to previous literature followed by the results of analyses of three crystals chosen
very carefully for purity. For each of these crystals the crystallography, physical characters, and
mineral associations were described. Their compositions were shown to agree with the formula
3[(Cu,Ag) 2 S(Sb,As) 2 S 3 ] and an important suggestion was made as to the role of the small
amounts of sulphides of iron and zinc in the constitution (op. cit; p. 203). Finally the new
formula was tested by reference to the results of eighteen previous analyses of minerals variously
named as tetrahedrite (Rose, 1829), coppite (Bechi, 1863; D'Achiardi, 1873), aphthonite (Nilson,
1877), fahlerz, and tennantite.

The fruitful collaboration between Spencer and Prior continued, Prior supplying the chemical
analyses for a series of joint papers. Between 1897 and 1899 three more papers were published on
the sulphantimonites of lead and silver: zinckenite and wolfsbergite from Wolfsberg in the Harz
(Spencer, 18976); plagionite, stephanite, enargite, and anglesite (Spencer, 1897c); and plagionite,
heteromorphite, and semseyite (Spencer, 1899). The last of these contained important sugges-
tions on the structural formula and on the explanation of the imperfect crystal forms found in
intermediate members of the plagionite-semseyite group.

After this, except for a note on 'feather-ore' (Spencer, 1907a) (see p. 57) attention was turned
to the many other interesting minerals which were reaching the Department from various
famous mining districts, largely through the good offices of the mining men whom Prior and
Spencer had interested in the Collections. This work resulted in a succession of papers between
November 1897 and April 1909.

The first of these was a short paper on augelite from a new locality in Bolivia in which he
recorded more accurate crystal measurements, refractive indices, and specific gravities than
hitherto (Spencer, 1898a; see also Prior & Spencer, 1895). A paper followed on crystallized
stannite from Bolivia, based on specimens collected by Sir Martin Conway (Spencer, 1901a);
crystals of this mineral had not been described previously. Spencer succeeded in measuring some
twelve of them, and he figured and described elegant interpenetrant pseudo-cubic twins, pointing
out the close correspondence between the crystallographic characters of stannite and chalco-
pyrite. This is the more interesting as Prior's analyses, the first ever made on crystallized stannite,
snowed that the formula could be written as Cu 4 SnS 4 + Fe 2 SnS 4 , representing an orthostan-
nate, or as CuFeS 2 -I- CuSnS 2 , showing a possible relation with chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2 . The
formula accepted by Hey (1950) is2[Cu 2 FeSnS 4 ], chalcopyrite being4[CuFeS 2 ].

Spencer kept up his work on minerals from Bolivia for several years and in 1907 he published
'Notes on some Bolivian minerals' with chemical analyses by G. T. Prior (Spencer, 19076).
These notes were arranged under seventeen headings describing different species. Semseyite was
recorded for the first time from Bolivia and an analysis provided by Prior. Also published for the

54 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

first time was an analysis made in 1897 of measured crystals of jamesonite. Crystals of andorite
showing new crystal forms were described and the systematic position of this mineral discussed.
One interesting relationship brought to notice is that for the series andorite, diaphorite, freiesle-
benite, it is shown that writing the composition for this series as«RS . Sb 2 S 3 , an increase in n, 1,
2, 2\ , is accompanied by an increase in the length of the c axis, comparable to the relationship
shown in the humite, chondrodite, clinohumite series.

Other minerals described are: chalcostibite, augelite, vivianite, tetrahedrite, valentinite, cas-
siterite, tourmaline (frequently overlooked in Bolivian mines on account of its unusual pale green
colour), fluorite, apatite, miargyrite, jarosite, chalybite, and enargite. The tetrahedrite is found in
two distinct habits; one tetrahedral, steel-grey and usually twinned; the other iron-black, and
resembling tennantite (' binnite ') from the Binnenthal. An interesting find is a tetrahedral crystal
on the faces of which pseudo-cubic crystals of stannite are in parallel growth. Crystals of
valentinite, carefully detached from the specimens, were measured both by Spencer and by
Herbert Smith, who also determined the refractive indices, whilst Prior made an analysis on
pure, crystallized material which confirmed the accepted formula, Sb 2 3 .

Another famous mine which provided material for several papers was Broken Hill, New South
Wales. The rare minerals marshite, miersite, and iodyrite from this mine were described in 1898
(Spencer, 18986). Crystals of Cul had been discovered by C. W. Marsh in 1892 and named
marshite by Professor A. Liversidge later in the same year (Liversidge, 1892); miersite, 'a cubic
tetrahedral modification of Agl containing some Cul, isomorphous with marshite', had been
described by Spencer (1898/)). He had now available better crystallized material of both minerals,
of which he described the crystallographic and physical characters, and for miersite, the interest-
ing changes undergone on heating. Changes on heating were also described for cleavage plates of
the silver iodide, iodyrite, and for this mineral two types of crystal are described : hexagonal
plates or short prisms and also pseudo-cubic crystals consisting of four rhombohedral crystals in
twin relationship. These ' are in fact mimetic crystals of iodyrite with the same external form as
miersite and marshite '. The paper concludes with a thoughtful discussion of the mutual relations
of the three minerals (Spencer, 19016). Finally, analyses of both miersite and marshite made by
Prior on carefully selected material were published a year later (Prior, 1902). They confirmed the
compositions 4AgI . Cul and Cul which Spencer had deduced from his qualitative tests.

Other papers published by Prior and Spencer concerned stanniferous argyrodite from Bolivia
and the identity of the so-called ' crystallised brongniardite ' with argyrodite-canfieldite (Prior &
Spencer, 1898); the identity of andorite, sundtite and webnerite (Prior & Spencer, 1897); and the
cerargyrite group and iodembolite (Prior & Spencer, 1902).

Prior also made analyses of minerals for Dr E. Hussak of the Geological Survey of Sao Paulo,
Brazil, for Dr F. Zambonini of the University of Naples, and for Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy.

In five papers in collaboration with Prior, Dr Hussak described five new minerals from Brazil:
lewisite, a titano-antimonate of calcium and iron related both to perovskite and to the calcium
antimonates, atopite and romeite (Hussak & Prior, 1895); derbylite, an antimonate of iron
(Hussak & Prior, 1896); and tripuhyite, another new antimonate of iron (Hussak & Prior, 1897).
All these three minerals were found in gravels at the cinnabar mine of Tripuhy, near Ouro Preto,
but the country rock is muscovite schist associated with itabirite. Zirkelite was found associated
with baddeleyite and perovskite in the magnetite pyroxenite of Jacupiranga, Sao Paulo. A
complete quantitative analysis made on additional material collected by Hussak proved the
presence of thorium, cerium, and uranium along with the titanium and zirconium revealed by
Prior's earlier analysis. The formula suggested was RO (Zr,Ti,Th)0 2 where R represents Ca and
Fe (Hussak & Prior, 1895; Prior, 1897). Senaite, found as rough, rhombohedral crystals in the
sand of Diamantina, Minas Gerais, was shown to have a composition near (Fe,Pb)0.
2(Ti,Mn)0 2 with PbO 10.5% (Hussak & Prior, 1898). M. H. Hey, however, regards it as a
possible variety of ilmenite with the formula (Fe,Mn,Pb)Ti0 3 (?) (pers. comm., 1976).

A much more interesting mineral described in 1899 is 'florencite, a hydrated phosphate of
aluminium and cerium earths' (Hussak & Prior, 1900). This mineral was found at three localities
in Brazil: in the cinnabar-bearing gravels at Tripuhy associated with xenotime and monazite,
and lewisite and derbylite; in diamond-bearing sand near Diamantina; and from another locality

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 55

at which the yellow topaz is found, near Ouro Preto. At this last locality the florencite is a
microscopic constituent of micaceous schists. That the mineral was a phosphate of cerium earths
was shown by Dr W. Florence, after whom the mineral is named. He had suggested that the new
mineral had a close relationship with hamlinite; this was confirmed by Prior in a paper read six
months later (Hussak & Prior, 1900). After reviewing analyses of this group of minerals — and
giving a caution against over-estimation of the exactness of mineral analyses when calculating
formulae — he suggests that the five minerals listed in the title form a natural group of rhombo-
hedral minerals:

Hamlinite 2SrO. 3A1 2 3 .2P 2 5 . 7HO.

Svanbergite 2SrO . 3A1 2 3 . P 2 O s . 2S0 3 . 6H 2 0.

Plumbogummite 2PbO. 3A1 2 3 2P 2 5 .7H 2 0.

Beudantite 2PbO . 3Fe 2 3 . P 2 O s . 2S0 3 . 6H 2 0.

Florencite Ce 2 3 . 3A1 2 3 . 2P 2 5 . 6H 2 0.

In a later paper on the connection between the molecular volume and chemical composition of
some crystallographically similar minerals, Prior used the hamlinite-florencite-beudantite-
alunite group as an example, and gave a long list of further examples. He showed how this
connection between molecular volume and composition can be used to suggest appropriate
formulae. Thus, rutile 2(Ti0 2 ) written as Ti 2 4 or TiTi0 4 brings it into correspondence with
ZrSi0 4 , and the molecular volumes of the two minerals would be 38 and 39, respectively (Prior,
1903a).

Struverite had been described as a new mineral in 1907 by Dr F. Zambonini, who had shown it
to contain niobium and tantalum, with titanic oxide, iron oxide, and traces of manganese. Prior
studied the known difficulties of separation of niobic, tantalic, and titanic acids and went to
great pains to improve the technique. He established the composition of struverite, and also
made two analyses of ilmenorutile and discussed the close relationship between the two minerals
(Prior & Zambonini, 1908). Another paper with Zambonini was 'On the identity of guarinite
with hiortdahlite'. Zambonini described the crystallography of the two minerals and reviewed
published analyses, etc, concluding that the two were identical; Prior's analysis of guarinite
confirmed this (Zambonini & Prior, 1909). This conclusion was substantiated later, though the
two minerals are now regarded as separate species, clino- and orthoguaranite (Cesaro, 1932).

Prior also collaborated with Dr A. K. Coomaraswamy in his description of the new mineral,
serendibite, found as small blue grains at a granulite-limestone contact in Ceylon. Prior's analy-
sis showed it to be a borosilicate of alumina, magnesia, and lime (Prior & Coomaraswamy,
1903). It has since been discovered in metamorphic limestone in Warren Co., New York. An
analysis by Larsen and Schaller (1932) included a quantitative determination of B 2 3 which
Prior had been unable to make on the very small amount of material — 0.57 g altogether —
available to him.

Prior's independent papers in order of publication are: ' note on connellite from a new local-
ity', describing a specimen from Namaqualand given to Tom Davies in 1861 and presented by
him to the Museum in 1887 (Prior, 1889); ' on zinc sulphide replacing stibnite and orpiment . . . ':
this paper described material from Felsobanya and also contained analyses of stephanite from
Copiapo and from Cornwall, and of polybasite from Mexico. Miers contributed a list of forms
identified on the Cornish stephanite (Prior, 1890); and a paper on fergusonite from Ceylon
giving two analyses of a pebble from the same group as that in which Fletcher discovered the new
mineral baddeleyite (p. 49). These again involved the determinauon of niobium and tantalum,
and uranium, yttrium and erbium. They showed more uranium than Rammelsberg's earlier
analysis of fergusonite from Ytterby. Prior described the remarkable bright red glow which
appears when a small splinter of the mineral is heated to redness; a phenomenon also exhibited
by gadolinite (Prior, 1893).

Prior's (1897) paper on zirkelite, read in 1896, has been referred to above. A short paper on
' sphaerostilbite ' showed the specimens so labelled in the Museum collection to be thomsonite
(Prior, 1898). Another paper brought together notes on 'Minerals from Swaziland', collected

56 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

and presented by Mr Sidney Ryan from the Embabaan district. The most important is of a
specimen which analysis showed to be related to euxenite but which in crystal habit resembles the
'aeschynite' from Hittero described by Brogger (Prior, 1899). This mineral was later named
priorite by Brogger (1906, pp. 1 10-116).

A paper read in 1902 collected notes on analyses of several minerals. An analysis of ' kilbricke-
nite' from Kilbricken mine, Co. Clare, showed it to be identical with geocronite; also included
were new analyses of carefully selected examples of the minerals miersite and marshite from
Broken Hill, N.S.W., described by Spencer (18986); and an analysis of chalcopyrite of apparently
cubic habit (Prior, 1902).

A new mineral, teallite, was discovered as thin, graphite-like folia in kaolin in specimens from
Bolivia forming part of the Hohmann Collection of South American minerals (see Mineralog.
Mag. 13. 382). Prior's analysis showed it to be a sulpho-stannite of lead, 2[PbSnS 2 ]. Prior
measured the crystals himself using Herbert Smith's newly constructed three-circle goniometer,
which must have been quite exciting. He realised that there might be a relationship between this
new material, and franckeite and cylindrite from Bolivia, both being known to contain lead,
sulphur, and tin. Prior demonstrated the relationship by making complete analyses of both
minerals (Prior, 1904).

In another short paper he established the formula of dundasite from North Wales as PbO .
A1 2 3 . 2C0 2 . 4H 2 0. (Prior, 19056). This mineral, found on cerussite by Mr G. J. Williams, was
new to Britain. Prior's last paper in this long series, recording his numerous analyses published
either independently or in collaboration with others, brings together three more analyses of
minerals from the Binn valley, all collected by R. H. Solly. They are of seligmannite, 'binnite',
and a green muscovite (fuchsite). The analysis of seligmannite, the first complete quantitative
analysis of this mineral, confirmed Baumhauer's suggestion, based on its crystallographic
characters, that it would prove to be isomorphous with bournonite. The 'binnite' analysis
showed this specimen, ' a large cubic crystal with faces 15 mm across', to be tennantite contain-
ing a large proportion of zinc (7.76%). The paper was read to the Mineralogical Society in June
1908 (Prior, 1910).

In addition to his work in the chemical laboratory Prior, in common with Spencer, had work
to do in keeping up-to-date the hand-written registers of acquisitions to the collections and in
addition had taken over from Thomas Davies the care of the collection of rocks. In this connec-
tion he had himself contributed important papers (published between 1897 and 1903) on the
petrography of some of the early collections of rocks, notably from the Antarctic, Abyssinia and
East Africa, and several of the Atlantic islands.

His review of the volcanic rocks of East Africa and the Atlantic Islands showed their re-
lationship to those of the Auvergne, the Eifel, the Bohemian Mittelgebirge, and especially the
rocks of Pantelleria, and he came to the conclusion that ' of the four great volcanic chains
running north to south, the great Atlantic chain with its European branches, and the minor chain
along the east coast of Africa, including Madagascar, are characterized by the association of
basalts and alkali-rich phonolitic rocks, whereas in the two other great Pacific-chains . . .
andesites are the prevailing lavas'. Thus he was making, in 1902, perhaps the first suggestion of
what later came to be spoken of as the Atlantic and Pacific Provinces of igneous rocks (Prior,
19036).

His last petrological contribution described the alkali lavas of Mt Nimrud, on the west side of
Lake Van, from an early collection made by Dr Felix Oswald (1905), showing that they were
similar to some of the lavas of the East African Rift Valley. He made chemical analyses of three
of these rocks to confirm this point, and noted that Oswald had remarked that Mt Nimrud is ' on
the great line of fracture which cuts across the Armenian folds and extends through the Red Sea
to the East African Rift Valley . . . ' (Prior, 1928).

During this period Spencer turned his attention to the study of tellurides from Australia. The
specimens had been presented to the Museum at various times since 1897 and much of the
material had formed part of the collection specially prepared for the Paris Exhibition of 1900 and
later shown at the Colonial Exhibition in London in 1902. The minerals described were: cala-
verite, sylvanite, petzite, coloradoite, altaite, and the minerals now known to be mixtures,

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 57

1 kalgoorlite ' and ' coolgardite '. Brief descriptions were given of the associated minerals and the
paper was read in June 1902 (Spencer, 1903a).

Several short papers by Spencer were published between 1903 and 1908, on crystalline forms
of carbides and silicides of iron and manganese (Spencer, 1903/)); irregularly developed crystals
of zircon (sp. gr. 4.0) from Ceylon (Spencer, 1904); phenakite and other minerals from German
East Africa (Spencer, 1906) — a note on 'feather ore' [Federerz]; identity of domingite ( =
'warrenite') with jamesonite (Spencer, 1907a) — and, with H. J. Johnston-Lavis, on chloro-
manganokalite, a new Vesuvian mineral. To this Spencer contributed data on the crys-
tallography and optical characters, and notes on some associated minerals (Johnston-Lavis &
Spencer, 1908).

In the paper on zircon crystals Spencer (1904) described the peculiar optical properties of the
crystals, the variations and changes in specific gravity, and the change of optical properties on
heating from dark brown uniaxial positive to grass-green biaxial. He quoted A. H. Church and
S. Stevanovic on the suggestion that in one of the varieties of zircon there may be, instead of
zirconium, another, closely related element. The paper on phenakite, besides noting the large size
of the crystal (about 1.5 x 1 cm) also mentions sheets of muscovite measuring 19 x 12 cm when
trimmed ; they were first described by Bornhardt (1900).

The note on 'feather-ore' (1907a) reviewed the accounts of the various minerals which had
been identified as 'Federerz' and showed that several quite different minerals were involved.
One of these might be stibnite but most ' feather-ores ' contain lead, antimony, and sulphur. The
minerals are of two kinds: one is 'brittle', with a cleavage perpendicular to the fibres (jameson-
ite); the other is flexible and may be one of at least four different minerals. It was not possible to
identify such tiny fibres because fibres of more than one kind may be intermingled. These flexible
' feather-ores ' may be grouped, Spencer considered, in a ' natural history group to which the
name plumosite may conveniently be applied'. They must be removed from jamesonite. In the
course of the discussion it is shown that 'domingite' from Colorado (= warrenite) is identical
with jamesonite.

Another important paper by Spencer was written on a group of zinc phosphate minerals found
in cavities and caves in low hills, ' kopjes 1 and 2 ', then recently discovered in the neighbourhood
of deposits of lead and zinc ores at Broken Hill, Zimbabwe. These kopjes are now famous for the
discoveries made there of bone-breccias and the remains of early man, including the Rhodesian
skull (Spencer, 1908). The material in which the crystallized zinc phosphates were found was sent
to the Museum by Mr Percy C. Tarbutt, and other material was made available by the British
South Africa Company. Altogether fifteen different species are recorded: of these the most
interesting is hopeite, a mineral only once discovered previously. It was first described and
named by Sir David Brewster (1823) from a specimen from a zinc mine at Altenberg, near
Aachen. Spencer, describing the crystals now available, showed that there are two modifications,
a-hopeite and ^-hopeite, identical in composition but differing markedly in optical characters
and the rates at which water is lost on heating. The composition isZn 2 P 2 8 .4H 2 0, as deter-
mined by Spencer's analyses. He also described two new minerals: parahopeite, identical with
hopeite in composition but distinct in symmetry and optical characters; and tarbuttite, Zn 3 P 2 8 .
Zn(OH) 2 , a basic zinc phosphate. Also described are large crystals and massive specimens of
descloizite, vanadinite, and pyromorphite; also hemimorphite and calamine, hydrozincite, and
cerussite, the last forming beautiful, large, splendent crystals. All these are now well represented
in the Museum and doubtless also in most good mineral collections. Spencer and F. N. Ashcroft
both visited the locality after the International Geological Congress at Capetown in 1929.

Still another paper on a group of minerals from one mine, this time in England, was ' on the
occurrence of alstonite and ullmannite ... in a barytes-witherite vein at the New Brancepeth
Colliery near Durham' (Spencer, 1910a). Alstonite had been recorded at only two mines in
England and never within the past fifty years. Spencer found some specimens in a dealer's stock
and by a piece of detective work traced them to the New Brancepeth baryte vein. The alstonite
occurs in acute six-sided pyramids; they are rose-tinged in the mine but quickly lose this colour
on exposure. The other very rewarding find in the mine was ullmannite, NiSbS, discovered for
the first time in Britain. It occurred in crystals of two habits : cubic and octahedral ; it has good

58 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

cubic cleavage and was found sometimes in parallel growth with galena. Baryte, often in large
transparent crystals, and witherite, both as crystals and as nodular masses, are fully described.

In January 1910 Spencer read to the Mineralogical Society a paper on the weight of the
Cullinan diamond and on the value of the carat weight. He had been struck by the varying
weights reported for this, at that time the biggest known diamond, and he made a thorough
examination of the reports and actually checked the weights used in the various offices where the
diamond had been weighed. At the same time he reviewed the variations of the carat weight as
used in various countries, including the metric carat recently adopted in France (Spencer, 1910/)).
He followed this paper the next year with one recording the weights of the larger diamonds,
giving particulars of 26 stones found between 1869 and 1905, when the Cullinan was found, with
place and date of find, weight of the rough stone, and the weights of the largest cut stones
obtained from each (Spencer, 1911a).

It was also in 1910 that Spencer did some important work on orthorhombic crystals from a
Cornish tin furnace which C. O. Trechmann had named '/J-tin' in 1879. Analyses by J. H.
Collins gave the composition as metallic tin. It had been noticed that crystals of stannous
sulphide gave the same parameters as Trechmann's for ' /?-tin '. Spencer was able to re-examine
the original specimens and showed that Trechmann's crystals contained much sulphur, and were
in fact SnS. Collins had taken crystals for analysis from the same specimen but they were of
metallic tin and not the same as those measured by Trechmann. Spencer did not publish his work
until much later, after Trechmann's death (Spencer, 1921a).

In this paper Spencer also gave a description of the orthorhombic SnS, and of the tetragonal
iron stannide, FeSn 2 , and of a rhombohedral tin arsenide, Sn 3 As 2 . These last two descriptions
were the product of work done in collaboration with J. E. Stead on the ternary alloys of
Sn-Sb-As (Stead & Spencer, 1919).

In the course of the work on these alloys Stead had observed some remarkable, but microsco-
pic, crystals of one of the alloys in the form of segments of spherical shells and he asked Spencer
whether similar forms were known among minerals. Spencer collected what information he
could at that time, giving some illustrations of curved forms in crystals found in the Mineral
Collection including, for example, helical twist in stibnite crystals (Spencer, 1921c). J. E. Stead
also supplied crystals from an iron furnace of the iron phosphide (rhabdite), which Spencer
described (Spencer, 1916a). Rhabdite was discovered in 1864 as a constituent of a meteorite and
it had also been prepared artificially. Spencer was able to establish the tetragonal symmetry of
these tiny crystals.

In 1907 and during part of 1908 Fletcher was ill and away from the Department. He recovered
and in 1909 was appointed Director of the Museum in succession to Sir Ray Lankester, while G.
T. Prior became Keeper of Minerals. From 1907 onwards any time that Prior could spare from
the administration of the Department was spent in the chemical laboratory, but now all his
analytical and petrographic work was devoted to meteorites and their classification (Spencer,
1936). The vacancy caused by Fletcher's appointment as Director and Prior's promotion to
Keeper was filled by the appointment as an Assistant, Second Class, of Walter Campbell Smith,
who joined the Department on 1 December 1910, the day after his 23rd birthday.

Mention has been made above (p. 54) of help given to Spencer in the measurement of crystals
and the determination of refractive indices of valentinite by Herbert Smith, and also of his
three-circle goniometer. This was George Frederick Herbert Smith, who had joined the De-
partment soon after the departure of Miers to the Oxford professorship. He was born in 1872
and was less than two years Spencer's junior. His father was headmaster of a boys' school at Five
Ways, Birmingham, and later of Doncaster School. He himself was at school at Winchester and
went from there, with a scholarship, to New College, Oxford where he took first class honours in
Mathematics (1895) and Natural Sciences (Physics) in 1896. Before taking up his appointment at
the Museum he was ' persuaded ', like Spencer before him, to spend a semester studying mineral-
ogy and crystallography under Groth at Munich, again at his own expense, and with no salary
from the Museum. In these days of student grants and post-graduate studentships, this voluntary
study abroad at the sacrifice of six months' salary, not to mention postponing the commence-
ment of their Civil Service, seems remarkable.

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857 1927 59

Herbert Smith's mathematical training was a great help to him in his crystallography, and his
knowledge of physics and particularly of optics enabled him to devise improvements in go-
niometers and to undertake difficult determinations of high value refractive indices. Herbert
Smith actually joined the Department in April 1897. He started work on a section of the
Crystallographic Catalogue and very early in the course of this work he came across two
specimens of atacamite, 4[Cu 2 Cl(OH 3 )], from Sierra Gorda, Chile, bearing very much better
crystals than those measured by earlier crystallographers. These he made the subject of his first
paper to the Mineralogical Society, read on 1 February 1898 (Herbert Smith, 1898). Using the
best-developed faces he determined the axial ratios; studied the etch-figures, confirming thereby
the holohedral orthorhombic symmetry of the mineral; determined the refractive indices by the
method of minimum deviation on three prisms formed by three pairs of natural faces of the
crystals; and showed how to calculate the three principal refractive indices, a, /?, and y, from the
measurements obtained (Herbert Smith, 1906a). For this work he used a large Fuess goniometer
reading to 10 seconds of arc, and for the optic axial angle a Miers microscope-stage goniometer
(see p. 51). Several years later Herbert Smith described paratacamite, a new mineral from Sierra
Gorda, shown by Prior to have the same empirical formula as atacamite but definitely dis-
tinguished from it by its crystal symmetry. The symmetry is pseudo-rhombohedral and the
crystals, some of which show a prismatic habit, are invariably twinned. On some specimens the
crystals resemble cubes but are actually twinned rhombohedra (Herbert Smith & Prior, 1906).
That the two minerals atacamite and paratacamite are distinct was confirmed by Bannister et al.
(1950), as a result of an X-ray study of these minerals in the collection.

In his second published paper Herbert Smith described several minerals found in the lead slags
from the ancient mines at Laurium in Greece. These were laurionite, phosgenite, fiedlerite and a
new mineral, paralaurionite. Crystals of each species were measured, forms identified, and axial
ratios calculated. Refractive indices were determined using prisms formed by natural faces.
Paralaurionite forms monoclinic crystals, tabular parallel to {100}, and almost always twinned,
by reason of which it gives a characteristic optic figure in monochromatic light. In measuring
these crystals Herbert Smith used a vertical circle goniometer devised by Stober (1898); (Herbert
Smith & Prior, 1899). About two months after this paper had been published there appeared a
posthumous paper by Professor Arzruni in which he described by the name rafaelite a new
mineral, an oxychloride of lead, from the San Rafael mine, Chile (Arzruni et al., 1899). Herbert
Smith found that the measured angles of rafaelite were identical with his angles for pa-
ralaurionite and concluded that the two minerals were identical (Herbert Smith, 18996).

Herbert Smith's three-circle goniometer has been mentioned previously (p. 58). Two-circle
goniometers were already well known and one had been constructed and used by Miller as early
as 1874. Herbert Smith attached a third circle to the vertical circle of a two-circle goniometer and
this carried an adjustable crystal holder of the usual pattern used on goniometers. By this means,
without moving the crystal in the holder, any zone can be brought into adjustment and any face
in the zone can be brought parallel to the vertical circle and its position in the zone can be
determined. The first instrument was described in April 1899, an improved form was announced
in the following year, and the completed instrument was fully described in 1902 (Herbert Smith,
1899a, 1901, 1904a).

Other instruments preserved in the Department and designed by Herbert Smith include an
improved form of hand-held refractometer referred to later (p. 60) ; a student's goniometer on
the Wollaston pattern (Herbert Smith, 19196); and a camera lucida attachment for the
horizontal-circle goniometers (Herbert Smith, 1910).

The camera lucida attached to the telescope of the goniometer can be used either for drawing
accurate projections of the ' light-figures ' obtainable by reflections from imperfectly developed
faces or, with the addition of a small lens in front of the eyepiece, for making drawings of the
smallest crystals while still positioned for measurement on the crystal holder.

Herbert Smith also designed a protractor for drawing great circles of large radii for stereo-
graphic projections on a 10 cm primitive circle. For ruling such curves he used a multiple spring
composed of a series of clock springs of suitable length to represent a single spring of variable
thickness which is required if circular curves are to be obtained. It is set by a ' pushing piece '

60 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

actuated by a screw with a scale giving the inclination of the great circle to be drawn (Herbert
Smith, 1913/?).

Several diagrams were prepared to assist in crystal calculation, including a ' moriogram ' for
' rapidly determining the angles between a face of symmetry and all other faces with rational
indices which lie with it in some particular zone, when two of the angles are known . . . '. This
diagram could be used with accuracy for zones in which the principal poles included a right angle
(Herbert Smith, 19046). In a later paper Herbert Smith discussed two methods of obtaining the
angles and indices in zones of crystals with triclinic symmetry also. One method was a deduction
from the properties of the gnomonic projection, the second an extension of the moriogram
(Herbert Smith, 1913a). He also published two papers on the use of the gnomonic projection in
the drawing and calculation of crystals (Herbert Smith, 19036, 1919a; Miers, 1887).

Herbert Smith was actively interested in theories of crystal structure and in 1901 assisted
William Barlow and Miers in drawing up their report to the British Association on the devel-
opment of geometrical theories of crystal structure, 1666-1901 (Barlow et al., 1901; Herbert
Smith, 1902). This report was being prepared just at the time that Herbert Smith was grappling
with the problem of the crystallography of calaverite (see p. 61).

Soon after his appointment to the Museum Herbert Smith became interested in gemstones and
the methods used by jewellers to identify them. He designed an improved form of total re-
fractometer, which could be used in the hand for measuring the refractive indices of cut and
polished gemstones. An instrument based on similar principles had been designed by E. Bertrand
in 1885 and widely used. The chief improvement in Herbert Smith's instrument lay in the
introduction of a compensating lens which enabled the shadow edges on the scale to be sharply
defined and capable of being focused. The first form of this refractometer was described in 1904
and the much improved model in 1907 (Herbert Smith, 1905, 19076). The scale on the new model
gave refractive indices to two places of decimals and the readable range of the refractive indices
was increased to 1.770 (0.02 higher than before), enabling it to be used for corundum, which is
very important. Observations with this model are made easier by the insertion of a totally-
reflecting prism between the two lenses of the eyepiece.

For crystals and gemstones with refractive indices too high for determination on a total
reflectometer Herbert Smith published a short paper ' On the method of minimum deviation for
the determination of refractive indices ', together with a refractive index diagram which in effect
solves the well-known formula in terms of the prism angle and the angle of minimum deviation
(Herbert Smith, 19066). In a short paper read to the Mineralogical Society in 1907 he described
the manufacture of synthetic corundum by the Verneuil process. By goniometric measurements
he showed that the lines intersecting at 60° at the broad end of the boules are formed by minute
faces of the fundamental rhombohedron of corundum. In the same paper it was announced that
a dark blue boule alleged to be synthetic sapphire was in fact a synthetic spinel. This boule had
been submitted to Herbert Smith by Mr Edward Hopkins of Hatton Garden, who had noticed
that it was not dichroic (Herbert Smith, 1908).

With Mr Hopkins, Herbert Smith took a very active part in the movement initiated by the
National Association of Goldsmiths which, about 1912, instituted courses in gemmology for
jewellers and issued diplomas to candidates successful in the examinations. Herbert Smith was
one of the examiners for these diplomas for many years. The movement resulted in 1931 in the
foundation of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain; Herbert Smith was President of
the Association from 1942 until his death in 1953. He published a book Gem stones and their
distinctive characters in 1912. It ran to its fifth edition by 1926 and now, revised and enlarged by
Professor F. Coles Phillips and with the shorter title Gemstones, is in its 14th edition. He
published numerous short papers on gemstones and the methods of identifying them, contribu-
ting, for instance, monthly articles to the Jeweller and Metalworker from 1925 to 1927.

Herbert Smith wrote several collaborative papers on minerals, the first being an account with
Prior on red silver minerals from the Binnenthal, Switzerland (Herbert Smith & Prior, 1907).
This dealt with very small crystals of a scarlet or vermilion colour, collected by R. H. Solly from
the dolomite of the Lengenbach quarry. Solly had described crystals of several new minerals
from this quarry (1903a,6; 1905), since when he had obtained more material, including some

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857 1927 61

better crystals, and it was this material he now submitted to Herbert Smith. From these crystals
Prior picked out just sufficient for quantitative analyses. All three proved to be sulpharsenites of
lead and were named by Solly. Hutchinsonite was particularly interesting as it contained up to
25% thallium; this orthorhombic species (Tl,Pb) 2 AgAs 5 S 10 , has since been discovered at an-
other German locality, a lead-zinc mine near Wiesloch in Baden (Ramdohr, 1953 ; Seeliger, 1953,
1954), and in much larger crystals at Quiruvilca, Peru. Smithite, named for Herbert Smith, is
monoclinic, AgAsS 2 ; and trechmannite, rhombohedral, is probably a sulpharsenite of silver.
Herbert Smith, using the three-circle goniometer, completely determined the crystallographic
characters of all three minerals and, as far as was then possible, made good observations on their
optical characters, refractive indices, and specific gravities. This, apart from a short paper
describing small crystals of ilmenite from Jacupiranga collected by Dr Hussak and labelled
zirkelite (Herbert Smith, 1907a), was his only crystallographic paper until 1910 when, on 7 June,
he read a paper before the Mineralogical Society on 'Chabazite and associated minerals from
County Antrim ' (Herbert Smith et al., 1916), which presented the results of a thorough study of
the very good specimens collected from quarries on the Antrim coast by F. N. L. Ashcroft and
Mr Robert Bell. As a result of his investigations he concluded that the name chabazite should be
applied to the whole group (of its varieties) 'and it is convenient to retain the term gmelinite for
the apparently hexagonal crystals, and to use the term phacolite in a somewhat widened sense for
all the crystals, invariably twinned, of rhombohedral habit, and not merely for those lenticular in
shape \ as had been the practice. Hey later made gmelinite a distinct species (F. A. Bannister,
pers. comm., 1926); that phacolite is a variety of chabazite has been confirmed by X-ray powder
photographs (G. F. Claringbull, pers. comm., 1947).

In 1911 Herbert Smith and Prior published two papers on schwartzembergite from the Hoh-
mann collection of South American minerals (Herbert Smith & Prior, 191 la); and on fermorite
and tilasite from India (Herbert Smith & Prior, 191 16). Herbert Smith also investigated the
crystal form of nitrogen sulphide (N 4 S 4 ), confirming Artini's determination of its symmetry as
monoclinic and obtaining approximate measurements of its refractive indices. In 1913 he con-
tributed crystallographic notes to a paper by G. S. Blake of the Imperial Institute on varieties of
zirkelite from Ceylon (Blake & Herbert Smith, 1913).

The crystals of schwartzembergite, from the San Rafael mine, Sierra Gorda, Chile, were
shown to be pseudo-tetragonal with very rounded pyramid faces. Measurable reflections were
unobtainable and it was on such crystals as these that the device of using a camera lucida to
project the 'light-figures' given on reflection of a pin-hole signal was introduced (see p. 59). The
optical characters are anomalous, biaxial figures with different orientations in eight sectors of
the crystals being observed, whilst the optic axial angles also differ widely in alternate sectors.
Prior investigated the chemistry with great care and succeeded in proving that the iodine in this
mineral was not present as iodide, as had been supposed, but as iodate, and that schwartzember-
gite was ' a molecular compound of iodate of lead with an oxychloride having the composition of
mendipite, 3(PbCl 2 . 2PbO) . Pbl 2 4 '. He suggested that 'it would seem as if the anomalous
morphological and optical characters of the mineral had a direct connection with the abnormal
chemical composition ', whilst Herbert Smith concluded with the following: ' The curious nature
of the morphological characters indicates that in these crystals the intermolecular repulsive
forces which prevail in liquids and appear as surface tension are comparable with the intermole-
cular attractive forces which are responsible for the growth of rigid crystals. Schwartzembergite
is therefore one of the links connecting liquid crystals with plane-faced crystals.'

Fermorite, a new mineral discovered by Sir Lewis Fermor in the Sitapar manganese deposit of
India, and named after him, was shown by Prior to be, as Fermor suspected, an arsenic analogue
of apatite with about 10% SrO, 3[(Ca,Sr) 3 (Pb,As) 2 8 . Ca(OH,F)]. The other mineral presented
to the Museum by Fermor, a pale green arsenate from Kajlidongri, was proved both by Herbert
Smith's crystal measurements and by Prior's analysis to be identical with the tilasite from
Langban described by H. Sjogren in 1895.

I have left until now any account of the research on which Herbert Smith embarked in
November 1900 on the crystallography of the gold telluride, calaverite. The Department had
recently acquired a collection of crystals of this mineral from Cripple Creek, Colorado and

62 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

among them were some unusual, brilliant yellow crystals which Herbert Smith set out to measure
with a view to determining whether they were in fact calaverite. He soon came up against a very
remarkable and intractable problem (Herbert Smith & Prior, 1901).

Herbert Smith succeeded in measuring 49 crystals of calaverite, many of which showed a great
many forms. One, 3.5 x 0.7 mm in cross section, showed 62 terminal faces representing 42
different forms. The determination of the positions of the faces was greatly facilitated by the use
of the recently constructed three-circle goniometer (p. 59).

The morphological development of the crystals led to the conclusion that the crystals were
monoclinic, but on this occasion it was found that very many of the faces had to be assigned very
complex indices. A further study of the zones in which the numerous faces could be plotted on a
gnomonic projection showed that many faces had simple indices when referred to a triclinic
lattice (Tj), but there still remained many with very complex indices indeed, e.g: (59.20.5),
(49.20.5), (39.20.15). However, all but six could be referred to a second triclinic lattice (T 2 ) and
so receive simple indices. Even the remaining six could be given simple indices if referred to a
third, monoclinic lattice (M 3 ). There are two further lattices to be explained by twinning; so, as
Herbert Smith wrote, ' we are, therefore, driven to the remarkable conclusion that five distinct
lattices may be traced in calaverite, which are incongruent but not independent. The prism zone
is common to all.' He added further: ' in the present state of our knowledge we can do little more
than conjecture what may be the actual arrangement of the ultimate parts in any particular
mineral although we are agreed that it must belong to one of 230 different classes. The case of
calaverite is one of peculiar perplexity.'

Herbert Smith worked on this problem for months; in fact in the end he overworked and had
to stop for a time. His final conclusion read : ' the only hypothesis . . . remaining appears to be the
existence of a minute skeletal structure of some kind — an infinitesimal framework composed of
material with an arrangement according to one lattice intercalated with material with an ar-
rangement according to another lattice.' He noted the extremely brittle character of the crystals
and considered that this may indicate that there is a facility for parting which is not in the same
direction at every point. This would be explained if the crystals are composed of two individuals
so intimately intermixed that the separation is not visible to our perceptions. This is in agreement
with the hypothesis stated above, and the existence of skeletal and hollow crystals, and of pits on
faces, all suggest breaks in continuity of the homogeneous arrangement.

Haifa dozen first class crystallographers worked on the unsolved problem of calaverite during
the thirty years following the publication of Herbert Smith's paper. None of them arrived at a
conclusion satisfactory to themselves and none of the work was published until 1931 when Victor
Goldschmidt, Charles Palache, and M. A. Peacock published ' Uber Calaverit ' (Goldschmidt et
al., 1931) summarized in 'Calaverite and the Law of Complication ' (Peacock, 1932). These
authors had repeated the plotting of 92 forms on a gnomonic projection as Herbert Smith had
done, and arrived at similar results, namely, the need to refer the forms to one or other of five
different sets of triclinic axes to obtain simple indices. Goldschmidt's Law of Complication is
explained in Peacock's paper.

A problem similar to but less baffling than that of calaverite was presented by the
crystallography of sartorite, one of the lead sulpharsenides from the Binnenthal quarry of
which R. H. Solly, among others, had made a collection before the quarry closed in 1909.
Solly had described some of these minerals at various times since 1900 and had exhibited his
specimens of sartorite at a meeting of the Mineralogical Society where he read a paper in
June 1914.

Some of his crystals showed very small pyramidal planes, uncommon in sartorite, the positions
of which could not be determined satisfactorily on a single-circle goniometer and Solly had asked
Herbert Smith to measure the crystals on his three-circle goniometer. This he agreed to do, but
two months after the meeting at which the first part of their joint paper on sartorite was read the
First World War broke out and it was not until 1916 that Herbert Smith had an opportunity to
start work on the measurements. The results were given in a paper read to the Mineralogical
Society in June 1917 and published in May 1919 (Herbert Smith & Solly, 1919). He also found
among these specimens a single crystal of a mineral different from sartorite, and which he was

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 63

able to measure ; there was insufficient to analyse and so it remained unnamed (Herbert Smith,
1920).

The crystals measured were described in great detail. The positions of all the faces were plotted
on a gnomonic projection and this showed that, as in calaverite, there are five different networks
to which the faces are referable, corresponding to three lattices, I, II, and III, and two more
related to two of these three by twinning. Lattice I is monoclinic, II and III are triclinic. Only one
crystal had many faces referable to lattice III, and for three of the measured crystals all their
faces could be referred to lattices I and II. The three lattices in sartorite were found to be
positionally related in such a way that each can be transformed into the adjoining lattice by a
shear which, in five different crystals, is ' constant in amount but variable in direction '.

Except for his account of crystals of semseyite found by Sir Arthur Russell at Glendinning in
Dumfriesshire (Herbert Smith & Prior, 1919) the work on sartorite was Herbert Smith's last
contribution to geometrical crystallography. By the time the War was over he had become very
much involved in administrative duties, largely outside the Department. During the War he was
very active in the General Reserve — the GR's — to which the older members of the Museum staff
contributed a small detachment. Also he was being asked to do more and more in the Museum
Office during the absence of the Secretary, Mr C. E. Fagan, who was ill. Eventually, after Mr
Fagan's death, Herbert Smith was appointed to succeed him in 1921. Although he returned to
the Department as Keeper for the last two years of his service (1935-1937) and made several
improvements in the exhibition gallery, he never resumed his researches in mineralogy.

In 1911 the Department was literally smothered by the transfer to it of the collection of foreign
rocks and minerals from the hundred years old Geological Society's museum. Campbell Smith
was assigned the task of cataloguing these collections and arranging their incorporation into the
Rock Collection. Campbell Smith, appointed in 1910 (see p. 58), came from Solihull School and
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he had read Crystallography and Mineralogy under
Lewis and Hutchinson, and Geology and Petrology under Marr and Harker. Being an enthusi-
astic mineralogist, it was as such that he hoped to be employed, and he did begin work on some
of the silicates in the mineral collection as his part in the work on the ' Crystallographic Cat-
alogue '. He also worked in the chemical laboratory under Prior but, because Prior was now fully
occupied with meteorites and departmental administration, it was clear that a petrologist was
needed and it was a petrologist that Campbell Smith became.

In the circumstances it is perhaps not surprising that Campbell Smith published nothing of a
mineralogical nature before the War except his account of the mineral collection of Thomas
Pennant (1726-1798) which had just been presented to the Museum by the Earl of Denbigh
(Campbell Smith, 1913). The collection was arranged on the lines of Woodward's classification
(1729) and came to the Department in its two original cabinets, accompanied by a two- volume
catalogue in Pennant's own hand.

On the return in 1913 of the members of Captain R. F. Scott's Terra Nova Antarctic Ex-
pedition (Campbell Smith, 19286; Campbell Smith & Game, 1954) it was arranged that the
Department should co-operate in the working up of the collections of rocks made by the
geologists, and this work also fell to Campbell Smith. Then in 1914 came the First World War,
and Campbell Smith enlisted for service with the Artists' Rifles.

After the War he spent a week or so with S. J. Shand at Geneva studying under Marcel Gysin
the Fedorov method for determining the optical orientation of feldspars using the three-axis
Fedorov microscope stage. Returning from this visit he put the method to use and published a
paper on the optical orientation of labradorite from St John's Point, Co. Down, Northern
Ireland, using material collected many years before with Professor A. Hutchinson (Hutchinson
& Campbell Smith, 1912; Campbell Smith, 1928a). Campbell Smith's only other mineralogical
publication at this time was a description, with chemical analyses by G. T. Prior, of a compact
chlorite from Bernstein in Austria then being marketed in London as ' Styrian jade ' (Campbell
Smith & Prior, 1924), but he devised, with H. H. Thomas, apparatus to enable facets to be
ground at any required angle on crystal plates or prisms (Thomas & Campbell Smith, 1914).

The vacancy caused by Herbert Smith's transfer to the Museum Office was filled by the
appointment in June 1922 of Edgar Donald Mountain who, as a scholar of Corpus Christi

64 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

College, Cambridge, had taken a First in both parts of the Tripos, and had been awarded the
Wiltshire Prize for Mineralogy. Previously he had been at Westminster City School and a scholar
at Sutton Valence.

Mountain continued work on the Mineral Collection where Campbell Smith left off, and he
also worked in the chemical laboratory, contributing analyses to several of Spencer's later
papers, notably those on the lead-copper minerals from the Mendip mines (Spencer & Mountain,
1923) and on two new minerals, schultenite and aramayoite (Spencer & Mountain, 1926a,/?). In
1924 he described the crystallography of calcite crystals from Holywell, Flintshire, collected on a
visit to Pennant's country with Campbell Smith during the British Association Meeting at
Liverpool in 1923 (Mountain, 1924).

A more important paper involving crystallography, optical data, and chemical analyses was
Mountain's account of crystals of ' anorthoclase ' from Mount Erebus collected by Frank Deb-
enham on Scott's Terra Nova Expedition of 1910. In the same paper he described the somewhat
similar crystals from Mount Kenya presented to the Museum in 1900 by J. W. Gregory; dis-
cussing the nomenclature of these feldspars he concluded that the Mount Erebus crystals should
properly be called potash-oligoclase (Mountain, 1925).

His other mineralogical paper published from the Mineral Department described two fine
crystals of smithsonite from Broken Hill, Zimbabwe, acquired in 1921 and 1923. These were
much better crystals than those available to Spencer in 1908, which were very small, forming
later growths on calamine (i.e; hemimorphite) (Spencer, 1908). The new crystals were simple,
clear, colourless rhombohedra, up to 7 mm along the edges. Mountain described the crystal form
and measured the refractive indices for five lines of the spectrum, using for this purpose the
Tutton monochromatic illuminator. He also made two complete quantitative analyses (Moun-
tain, 1926).

This last paper was read to the Mineralogical Society in March. Unfortunately in that spring
Mountain was seriously ill with pneumonia and was advised to live if possible in a warmer
climate. Most opportunely a vacancy occurred for a lecturer in mineralogy in the Department of
Geology at Rhodes University College, Grahamstown, South Africa : Mountain was appointed
to the post and resigned from the Museum in December 1926. After Professor E. H. L. Schwarz's
early death in 1928 Mountain was selected as his successor and remained Professor of Geology
there until his retirement in 1969.

Spencer continued to be active in the post-war period and papers dating from this time
concerned the pleochroism of adamite from Chanarcillo (Spencer, 1914), read to the Mineral-
ogical Society back in 1903; a butterfly twin of gypsum from Girgenti, Sicily (Spencer, 19166);
turite ( = turgite) and some other iron ores from Nova Scotia, based on a collection presented by
Dr Henry S. Poole, some time Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia (Spencer, 1919); new crystal
forms in pyrite, calcite, and epidote, with some brief remarks on the decomposition of pyrite
specimens in collections (Spencer, 1920a); and fibrolite ( = sillimanite) as a gem-stone from
Ceylon and Burma, describing in particular specimens from the ruby mines of Mogok presented
to the Museum by Mr A. H. Morgan. The crystals being clear and transparent, the opportunity
was taken to determine the optical constants, refractive indices, and dispersion, using a single
plate with prisms polished on two edges. Some crystals originally brought from Ceylon by S. T.
Trelawny as far back as 1812 but presented to the Museum in 1920 by Lt Col. C. F. Catt
provided one on which good faces were developed, enabling Spencer to determine the crystal
forms and the parameters (Spencer, 19206).

After the War was over and the Department again had its full complement of staff, Spencer
spent some of his annual leave in the spring of 1923 on a visit to Somerset to collect from the old
lead mine dumps of the Mendips. He had collected there in 1 898 and read a paper to the British
Association at Bristol on leadhillite from the ancient lead slags. In 1923 he collected specimens of
several little-known minerals and discovered two new species, chloroxiphite and diaboleite.
Quantitative analyses of the new minerals and of mendipite, crednerite, and hydrocerussite were
made by Mountain (Spencer & Mountain, 1923).

Early in 1924 Spencer published a paper on euclase and platinum from diamond washings in
British Guiana in which he described remarkable sheaf-like groupings and lenticular forms of

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857-1927 65

euclase crystals. These were found in concentrates derived from a conglomerate in the Kaietur
Gorge of the Potaro River. Spencer also identified as platinum some minute, metallic-looking
particles found in the concentrates by Mr J. C. Menzies (Spencer, 1924a). This was the first
published record of platinum in British Guiana, and was doubted by some, but Spencer con-
firmed his identification in a second paper announcing the discovery at the same locality of
grains believed to be allopalladium (Spencer, 1924/)). However, the allopalladium proved not to
be pure palladium but a distinct compound of palladium and mercury, PdHg. Larger grains of
the mineral had been investigated by Sir John Harrison in Georgetown, where he.was Director of
the Department of Science and Agriculture and where he had been Public Analyst for many
years before. He had definitely identified mercury as a constituent of these grains and had
obtained good estimates of their quantitative composition. Unfortunately Harrison died early in
1926 before a full account of the work was published; Spencer edited all his notes and published
an account of the new mineral, which was named potarite (Spencer, 1928a).

Later in 1924 Spencer attended the British Association Meeting in Toronto and visited many
museums, mines, and mineral collections both in Canada and the U.S.A. It was on this trip that
he saw the fluorescence of willemite being used for detecting the mineral on the washing tables at
Franklin Furnace. This led to his setting up a fluorescence exhibit near the entrance to the
mineral gallery, which was referred to in his paper on the South African occurrences of willemite
(Spencer, 1 921 e) and described in the first volume of the Natural History Magazine (Spencer,
19286). Spencer's other papers in 1924 and 1926 were on an inclusion of magnetite in diamond
from Bultfontein mine (Spencer, 1924c); splendid sperrylite crystals from the Tweefontein mine,
presented by the Potgietersrust Platinum Mining Company (Spencer, 1926); and two others
describing new minerals. One concerned schultenite, occurring as natural crystals of PbHAs0 4
on a specimen labelled 'lanarkite' from Tsumeb, South West Africa (Spencer & Mountain,
1926a). The specimen of schultenite was analysed by Mountain as was aramayoite, Ag(BiSb)S,
from Potosi, Bolivia, a new mineral described by Spencer at this time (Spencer & Mountain,
19266). This new mineral was made the subject of X-ray examination by Kathleen Yardley,
working in Sir William Bragg's laboratory at the Royal Institution. It is probably true to say that
this was the first example of a new mineral being examined for, or in, the Department of
Mineralogy by X-ray examination. Miss Yardley's paper was read to the Mineralogical Society
on 2 November 1926, and at the same meeting her paper on baddeleyite (described by Blake and
Herbert Smith, 1907) was also communicated to the Society by Sir William Bragg.

Except for his first contribution to the Natural History Magazine describing a beautiful, large,
12 525 carat crystal of aquamarine from Minas Gerais (1927 d), these papers were the last
Spencer published during Prior's Keepership ; however one may be allowed to record one other
paper, although it was the result of work done mainly, and probably, entirely at home. It was
entitled ' Specific gravities of minerals : an index of some recent determinations ' (Spencer,
1927c). In this he collected 2277 determined values of specific gravities of minerals from the
mineralogical literature from 1910 to 1927, using the International Table of Constants, part of
which Spencer had for years compiled, and Mineralogical Abstracts (1915-1927). These values
were listed (a) in a mineral index in order of increasing value of specific gravity from 1.03 to 19.0
(18 pages), and (b) alphabetically, under minerals, giving minimum and maximum recorded
values (4j pages). It is a good example of the laborious compilations of which Spencer produced
many other examples in the course of his work and for which many mineralogists have since been
grateful.

The year 1926 had been a busy time with the celebrations of the Jubilee of the Mineralogical
Society bringing many foreign mineralogists to visit the Department.

Mountain's place was filled in July 1927 by the appointment of Frederick Allan Bannister, a
scholar of the Whitgift School, Croydon, and a Goldsmiths' Scholar at Clare College, Cam-
bridge. He was a physicist and after leaving Cambridge had worked for some time in the Western
Electric Company's laboratory at Southgate. Very soon after he joined the mineral Department
he was launched on a part-time course in X-ray analysis methods in Sir William Bragg's labora-
tory at the Royal Institution and, in 1928, he set up a ' home-made ' X-ray tube in a partitioned-
off space in the room formerly occupied by Spencer.

66 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

Another notable addition to the staff in 1927 was Miss Jessie M. Sweet, who came as a
temporary assistant but was later established and became a Senior Experimental Officer. She
helped Spencer with the registration and the slip catalogue of the mineral collection (see p. 48).
After the Second World War, during which a large part of the collection was sent out of London
and the gallery suffered damage after a fire-bomb attack, she re-arranged the whole collection,
an enormous task which occupied eight years. For her devoted service she was awarded the
M . B. E. in 1 96 1 , just before her retirement.

At the end of 1927, actually on 16 December, his 65th birthday, Prior retired as Keeper and
Spencer succeeded him. Dr Max Hutchinson Hey, a mathematician, chemist, and crys-
tallographer came in due course to fill Spencer's place. I hope Spencer's work as Keeper, and the
research work of Bannister, Hey and Claringbull, and of later members of the staff of the
Department, will be recorded some day by one of my successors. After all, the seventy years
about which I have written ended fifty years ago.

Acknowledgements

I am very much indebted to Dr Clive Bishop, Keeper of Mineralogy, for his work in thoroughly
editing my paper and Dr David Kempe, Deputy Keeper, who has collected all my footnotes into
a list of references, and checked them all, and done a great deal of work on the text.

I also thank Mr Peter Embrey for reading the original typescript and making several useful
comments and some interesting additions, and I would like to add my thanks to Mrs S. P. N.
Angell for much work on the typescript and the final draft.

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68 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

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1921. Biographical notice of Sir Lazarus Fletcher (1854-1921). Mineralog. Mag. 19: 181-192.

& Prior, G. T. 1887. On a specimen of proustite containing antimony. Mineralog. Mag. 7: 196-200.

1888. Contributions to the study of pyrargyrite and proustite. Mineralog. Mag. 8: 37-102.

1892. Danalite from Cornwall. Mineralog. Mag. 10: 10-14.

1893. Xanthoconite and rittingerite, with remarks on the red silvers. Mineralog. Mag. 10:

185-216.

Mitscherlich, E. 1843. Ueber ein Goniometer. Phys. Math. K. Abh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin: 189-197.
Mountain, E. D. 1924. Calcite crystals from Holywell, north Wales. Mineralog. Mag. 20: 212-216.
1925. Potash-oligoclase from Mt. Erebus, Antarctica, and anorthoclase from Mt. Kenya, East

Africa. Mineralog. Mag. 20: 331-345.

1926. Smithsonite from the Rhodesia Broken Hill mines. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 51-54.

Nilson, L. F. 1877. Om aphtonit och tetraedrit fran Gandsjon i Vermland. Ofvers. K. V etensk Akad. For h.

Stockh. [34.] no. 5: 15-21.
Oswald, F. 1905. A treatise on the geology of Armenia. London (privately printed), iv + 425 pp.
Peacock, M. A. 1932. Calaverite, and the Law of Complication. Am. Miner. 17: 317-337.
1950. Studies of mineral sulpho-salts : XV. Xanthoconite and pyrostilpnite. Mineralog. Mag. 29:

346-358.
Prior, G. T. 1889. Note on connellite from a new locality. Mineralog. Mag. 8: 182.
1890. On zinc sulphide replacing stibnite and orpiment; analyses of stephanite and polybasite.

Mineralog. Mag. 9:9-15.
1893. Fergusonite from Ceylon. Mineralog. Mag. 10: 234-238.

70 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

1897. On the chemical composition ofzirkelite. Miner alog. Mag. 11: 180-183.

1898. On sphaerostilbite. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 26-29.

1899. Minerals from Swaziland: niobates and titanates of the rare earths, chemically allied to

euxenite and fergusonite; cassiterite, monazite, etc. The "Aeschynite " from Hittero. Mineralog. Mag. 12:
96-101.

1900. Hamlinite, florencite, plumbogummite (hitchcockite), beudantite and svanbergite, as mem-
bers of a natural group of minerals. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 249-254.

1902. The identity of kilbrickenite with geocronite: and analyses of miersite, marshite, and copper-
pyrites. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 186-190.

1903a. Note on a connexion between the molecular volume and chemical composition of some

crystallographically similar minerals. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 217-223.

1903/). Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa. Comparison of volcanic rocks from

the Great Rift Valley with rocks from Pantelleria, the Canary Islands, Ascension, St. Helena, Aden, and
Abyssinia. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 228-263.

1904. On teallite, a new sulphostannite of lead from Bolivia; and its relations to franckeite and

cylindrite. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 21-27.

1905a. A new thallium mineral. Nature, Lond. 71 : 534.

- 19056. Dundasite from north Wales. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 167-169.

1910. Analyses of seligmannite, zinciferous tennantite ('binnite'), and fuchsite from the Lengen-

bach quarry, Binnenthal. Mineralog. Mag. 15: 385-387.

1913. Pyrochlor. Polymignit. Niobate and tantalate. In Doelter, C. Handbuch der Mineralchemie,

Vol. 3, pt. 1. Dresden & Leipzig (von Theodor Steinkopff): 95-98, 171, 249-264.

1919. Review of progress of mineralogy from 1864 to 1918. Geol. Mag. 56: 10-16.

1928. Note on the alkali-lavas of Mount Nimrud, Armenia. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 485^88.

Prior, G. T. & Coomaraswamy, A. K. 1903. Serendibite, a new borosilicate from Ceylon. Mineralog. Mag.

13:224-227.
Prior, G. T. & Spencer, L. J. 1895. Augelite. Mineralog. Mag. 11 : 16-23.

1897. The identity of andorite, sundtite and webnerite. Mineralog. Mag. 11 : 286-301.

1898. Stanniferous argyrodite from Bolivia: the identity of the so-called "crystallised

brongniardite " with argyrodite-canfieldite. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 5-14.

1899. The identity of binnite with tennantite; and the chemical composition of Fahlerz.

Mineralog. Mag. 12: 184-213.

— 1902. The cerargyrite group (holohedral-cubic silver haloids). Mineralog. Mag. 13: 174—

185.
Prior, G. T. & Zambonini, F. 1908. On struverite and its relation to ilmenorutile. Mineralog. Mag. 15:

78-89.
Ramdohr, P. 1953. tiber der Mineralbestand der Zink-und Bleilagerstatte von Wiesloch in Baden. Fortschr.

Miner. 31: 13-14.
Rose, G. 1852. Das Krystallo-chemische Mineralsystem. Leipzig (W. Engelmann), vi 4- 155 pp.
Rose, H. 1829. Ueber die in der Natur vorkommenden nicht oxydirten Verbindungen des Antimons und des

Arseniks. Annln Phys. Chem. 15: 573-591.
Ross, W. A. 1869. [Delhi Gazette, Autumn 1869]; quoted in Hintze, C, 1889: Handbuch der Mineralogie.

Leipzig, Vol. 2, pt. 1 : 845.
Seeliger, E. 1953. Die Mineral paragenesen einiger Bohrungen im Muschelkalk sudlich und sudwestlich von

Wiesloch in Baden. Fortschr. Miner. 31: 14-17.

1954. Ein neues Vorkommen von Hutchinsonit in Wiesloch in Baden. Neues Jb. Miner. Abt. 86:

163-178.

Sjogren, H. 1895. Tilasite or fluor-adelite from Langban. Geol. For. Stockh. Forh. 17: 291-294.
Smith, G. F. H. 1898. Atacamite from Sierra Gorda, Chili. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 15-25.

1899a. A three-circle goniometer. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 175-182.

18996. Note on the identity of paralaurionite and rafaelite. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 183.

1901. Preliminary note on an improved form of three-circle goniometer. Mineralog. Mag. 13:

75-76.

— 1902. The structure of crystals: Part I, report on the development of the geometrical theories of

crystal structure, 1666-1901, by Barlow, W., Miers, H. A., & Smith, G. F. H. (abstract). Mineralog. Mag.
13: 199-203.

1903a. Some new crystal-forms on krennerite. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 264-267.

19036. On the advantages of the gnomonic projection and its use in the drawing of crystals.

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 309-321.

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857 1927 71

Smith, G. F. H. 1904a. An improved form of three-circle goniometer. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 309-321.
19046. The construction and use of the Moriogram. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 49-53.

1905. An improved form of refractometer. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 83-86.

1906a. The general determination of the optical constants of a crystal by means of refraction

through a prism. Phil. Mag. Ser. 6, 12: 29-36.

19066. On the method of minimum deviation for the determination of refractive indices. Mineralog.

Mag. 14: 191-193.

1907a. Ilmenite from Jacupiranga, Brazil. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 258-260.

19076. A new model of refractometer. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 354-359.

1908. Note on synthetical corundum and spinel. Mineralog. Mag. 15: 153-155.

1910. A camera lucida attachment for the goniometer. Mineralog. Mag. 15: 388-389.

191 1 . On the crystalline form of nitrogen sulphide. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 97-99.

1912. Note on a large crystal of anatase from the Binnenthal. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 290-293.

1913a. The graphical determination of angles and indices in zones. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 326-330.

- 19136. A new stereographic protractor. Mineralog. Mag. 17: 46-50.

1919a. On the use of the gnomonic projection in the calculation of crystals. Mineralog. Mag. 18:

317-323.

19196. A students' goniometer. Mineralog. Mag. 18: 366-367.

1920. A curious crystal from the Binn Valley, Switzerland. Mineralog. Mag. 19: 40-42.

Smith, G. F. H. (revised F. C. Phillips) 1972. Gemstones (14th edition). London (Methuen), xii + 580 pp.
Smith, G. F. H., Ashcroft, F. N. & Prior, G. T. 1916. Chabazite and associated minerals from County

Antrim. Mineralog. Mag. 17: 274-304.
Smith, G. F. H. & Prior, G. T. 1899. On some lead minerals from Laurium, namely laurionite, phosgenite,

fiedlerite, and (new species) paralaurionite. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 102-1 10.
1901. On the remarkable problem presented by the crystalline development of calaverite.

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 122-150.

1906. Paratacamite, a new oxychloride of copper. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 170-177.

1907. Red silver minerals from the Binnenthal, Switzerland. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 283-307.

1911a. On schwartzembergite. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 77-83.

19116. On fermorite, a new arsenate and phosphate of lime and strontia, and tilasite, from

the manganese-ore deposits of India. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 84-96.

1919. Semseyite from Dumfriesshire. Mineralog. Mag. 18: 354-359.

Smith, G. F. H. & Solly, R. H. 1919. On sartorite and the problem of its crystal-form. Mineralog. Mag. 18:

259-316.
Smith, W. Campbell. 1913. The mineral collection of Thomas Pennant (1726-1798). Mineralog. Mag. 16:

331-342.
1928a. The optical orientation of labradorite from County Down (Ireland) determined by the

Fedorov method. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 543-551.

1 9286. Catalogue of the rock collections in the Mineral Department of the British Museum {Natural

History) arranged geographically. Part I. Africa. London (British Museum (Natural History)): i-xiii + 1-
52.

1932. Catalogue of the rock collections in the Mineral Department of the British Museum (Natural

History) arranged geographically. Part II. America. London (British Museum (Natural History)): xiv-
xvi + 53-164.

- 1952. L. J. Spencer's work at the British Museum. Mineralog. Mag. 29: 256-270.

1969. A history of the first hundred years of the Mineral Collection in the British Museum, with

particular reference to the work of Charles Konig. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Hist, ser.) 3: 235-259.
Smith, W. Campbell & Game, P. M. 1954. Catalogue of the rock collections in the Mineral Department of the

British Museum (Natural History) arranged geographically. Part HI. Antarctica and Australasia. London

(British Museum (Natural History)): xvii-xviii + 165-255.
Smith, W. Campbell & Prior, G. T. 1924. On a compact chlorite from Bernstein, Austria. Mineralog. Mag.

20:241-244.
Solly, R. H. 1903a. [Mineralogical Society notes]. Nature, Lond. 69: 142.
19036. Sulpharsenites of lead from the Binnenthal. Part IV. — Seligmannite : with a supplementary

note on Baumhauerite. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 336-341.

- 1905. Some new minerals from the Binnenthal, Switzerland. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 72-82.
1912. Hatchite, a new (anorthic) mineral from the Binnenthal. Mineralog: Mag. 16: 287-289.

Spencer, L. J. 1895. Enargite. Mineralog. Mag. 11 : 69-79.

72 W. CAMPBELL SMITH

Spencer, L. J. 1897a. The "satin spar" of Alston in Cumberland; and the determination of massive and
fibrous calcites and aragonites. Mineralog. Mag. 11: 184-187.

- 1897/?. Zinckenite and wolfsbergite (chalcostibite) from Wolfsberg in the Harz; and the zinckenite
group. Mineralog. Mag. 11: 188-191.

1897c. The crystallography of plagionite : new crystal forms on stephanite, enargite and anglesite.

Mineralog. Mag. 11: 192-197.

1898a. Augelite from a new locality in Bolivia. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 1-4.

1898/). Miersite, a cubic modification of native silver iodide. Nature, Lond. 57: 574.

1899. Plagionite, heteromorphite and semseyite as members of a natural group of minerals. With

analyses by G. T. Prior. Mineralog. Mag. 12: 55-68.

- 1901a. Crystallised stannite from Bolivia. With analyses by G. T. Prior. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 54-65.
19016. Marshite, miersite and iodyrite from Broken Hill, New South Wales. Mineralog. Mag. 13:

38-53.

1903a. Mineralogical notes on Western Australian tellurides: the non-existence of ' kalgoorlite' and

' coolgardite ' as mineral species. Mineralog. Mag. 13: 268-290.

1903/). Crystalline forms of carbides and silicides of iron and manganese (' ferro-manganese', &c).

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 296-302.

1904. Irregularly developed crystals of zircon (sp. gr. 4.0) from Ceylon. Mineralog. Mag. 14:

43-48.

- 1906. Phenacite and other minerals from German East Africa. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 178-183.

1907a. Note on ' feather-ore ' : identity of ' domingite ' ( = ' warrenite ') with jamesonite. Mineralog.

Mag. 14:207-210.

1907/). Notes on some Bolivian minerals (jamesonite, andorite, cassiterite, tourmaline, &c). With

chemical analyses by G. T. Prior. Mineralog. Mag. 14: 308-344.
— 1908. On hopeite and other zinc phosphates and associated minerals from the Broken Hill mines,
north-western Rhodesia. Mineralog. Mag. 15: 1-38.

1910a. On the occurrence of alstonite and ullmannite (a species new to Britain) in a barytes-

witherite vein at the New Brancepeth Colliery near Durham. Mineralog. Mag. 15: 302-31 1.

1910/). Notes on the weight of the 'Cuillinan' diamond, and on the value of the carat-weight.

Mineralog. Mag. 15: 318-326.
191 la. The larger diamonds of South Africa. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 140-148.

1911/). Obituaries. Mineralog. Mag. 16: 149-160.

1914. Note on the pleochroism of adamite. Mineralog. Mag. 17: 114-115.

1916a. Crystals of iron phosphide (rhabdite) from a blast-furnace. Mineralog. Mag. 17: 340-343.

1916/). A butterfly-twin of gypsum. Mineralog. Mag. 18: 82-86.

1919. Mineralogical characters of turite (= turgite) and some other iron-ores from Nova Scotia.

Mineralog. Mag. 18: 339-348.

- 1920a. New crystal forms on pyrites, calcite, and epidote. Mineralog. Mag. 19: 1-9.

1920/). Fibrolite (= sillimanite) as a gem-stone from Burma and Ceylon. Mineralog. Mag. 19:

107-112.

- 1921a. Identity of Trechmann's ' /?-tin ' with stannous sulphide. Mineralog. Mag. 19: 1 13-123.
1921/). Biographical notices of mineralogists recently deceased; with an index to those previously

published in this magazine. Mineralog. Mag. 19: 240-262.

1921c. Curvature in crystals. Mineralog. Mag. 19: 263-274.

1924a. Euclase and platinum from diamond-washings in British Guiana. Mineralog. Mag. 20:

186-192.

1924/). Allopalladium from British Guiana. Mineralog. Mag. 20: 217-219.

1924c. An inclusion of magnetite in diamond. Mineralog. Mag. 20: 245-247.

1925. International agreement in mineralogical and crystallographical nomenclature. Mineralog.

Mag. 20: 353-363.

1926. Sperrylite crystals from the Transvaal. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 94-97.

1927a. Biographical notices of mineralogists recently deceased, (Third Series). Mineralog. Mag. 21:

229-257.

- 1927/). Corundum twins from Transvaal. Mineralog. Mag. 21: 329-336.

1927c. Specific gravities of minerals: an index of some recent determinations. Mineralog. Mag. 21:

337-365.

\921d. A crystal of aquamarine. Nat. Hist. Mag. 1 : 107-1 1 1.

1927c. South African occurrences of willemite. Fluorescences of willemite and some other zinc

minerals in ultra-violet rays. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 388-396.

MINERALOGY & CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 1857 1927

73

Spencer, L. J. 1928a. Potarite, a new mineral discovered by the late Sir John Harrison in British Guiana.
Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 397-406.

19286. Fluorescences of minerals in ultra-violet rays. Nat. Hist. Mag. 1: 291-298.

1936. Biographical notices of mineralogists recently deceased. (Sixth Series). Mineralog. Mag. 24:

277-306.

Spencer, L. J. & Mountain, E. D. 1923. New lead-copper minerals from the Mendip Hills (Somerset).

Mineralog. Mag. 20 : 67-92.

1926a. Schultenite, a new mineral, from South-West Africa. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 149-155.

19266. Aramoyoite, a new mineral, from Bolivia. Mineralog. Mag. 21 : 156-162.

Stead, J. E. & Spencer, L. J. 1919. The ternary alloys of tin-antimony-arsenic. J. Inst. Metal. 22: 127-148.
Stober, F. 1898. Ueber ein einfaches Theodolitgoniometer und seine Verwendung zu stauroskopischen

Bestimmungen. Z. Kristallogr. Miner. 29: 25-32.
Thomas, H. H. & Smith, W. Campbell. 1914. An apparatus for cutting crystal-plates and prisms. Mineralog.

Mag. 17:86-96.
Woodward, J. 1728-9. An attempt towards a Natural History of the fossils of England. London.
Von Lang, V. 1876. Construction des Reflexionsgoniometers. Denkschr. Akad. Wiss., Wien. c. Maths.

Naturwiss. 36:41-44.
Zambonini, F. & Prior, G. T. 1909. On the identity of guarinite and hiortdahlite. Mineralog. Mag. 15:

247-259.

Adamite 64
Aeschynite 56
Aikinite 51
Allopalladium 65
Alstonite 57
Altaite 56
Alum 52
Alunite 55
Andorite 54
Andrewsite 47
Anglesite 53
Anorthoclase 49, 64
Apatite 54, 61
Aphthonite 53
Aquamarine 65
Aramayoite 64, 65
Argentite 48
Argyrodite 54
Arsenopyrite 48
Atacamite 59
Atopite 54
Augelite 53, 54

Baddeleyite 49, 54, 55, 65
Baryte 57, 58
Beudantite 55
Binnite 53, 54, 56
Bismuth 48
Blende 48

Bournonite 50, 53, 56
Brazilite 49
Brevicite 46
Brochantite 46
Brongniardite 54

Calamine 57, 64

Index of Mineral Names

Calaverite 56, 60, 61, 62, 63
Calcite 48, 64
Caledonite 47
Canfieldite 54
Caracolite 49
Cassiterite 54
Cerargyrite 54
Cerussite 49, 56, 57
Chabazite 46, 61
Chalcopyrite 53, 56
Chalcosiderite 47
Chalcosine 48
Chalcostibite 54
Chalybite 54
Chlorite 63

Chloromanganokalite 57
Chloroxiphite 64
Chondrodite 54
Cinnabar 54
Clarite 53
Cliftonite 49
Clinoguarinite 55
Clinohumite 54
Cobalt glance 47
Cobaltite 47
Coloradoite 56
Connellite 46, 55
Coolgardite 57
Copper 47, 48
Copper pyrite 48
Coppite 53
Corundum 60
Crednerite 64
Cronstedtite 47
Cuprite 49
Cylindrite 56

Daviesite 49
Derbylite 54
Descloizite 57
Diaboleite 64

Diamond 49, 54, 58, 64, 65
Diaphorite 54
Domingite 57
Dundasite 56

Enargite 52, 53, 54
Epidote 64
Euclase 64, 65
Eudialyte 46
Euxenite 56
Evigtokite 47

Fahlerz 53
Feather-ore 53, 57
Federerz 57
Feldspar 49, 63, 64
Fergusonite 55
Fermorite 61
Fibrolite 64
Fiedlerite 58
Fireblende 51
Florencite 54, 55
Fluor-apatite 47
Fluorite 54
Franckeite 56
Francolite 47
Freieslebenite 54
Fuchsite 56

Gadolinite 46, 55
Galena 48, 58
Geikielite 49

74

W. CAMPBELL SMITH

Geochronite 56
Gismondine 46
Glaucodot 47
Gmelinite 61
Gold 46, 47, 48
Graphite 49
Greenockite 48
Guarinite 55
Gypsum 64

Hamlinite 55
Hemimorphite 49, 57, 64
Herschelite 46
Heteromorphite 53
Hiortdahlite 55
Hopeite 57
Humite 54
Hutchinsonite 61
Hydrocerussite 64
Hydrozincite 57

Ilmenite 54, 61
Ilmenorutile 55
Iodembolite 54
Iodyrite 54
Isopyre 47
Itabirite 54

Jamesonite 54, 57
Jarosite 54
Jordanite 50

Kalgoorlite 57
Kaolinite 47, 51, 56
Kilbrickenite 56

Labradorite 63
Lanarkite 47, 65
Langite 46, 47
Lanthanite 46
Laurionite 58
Leadhillite 64
Lewisite 54
Liskeardite 46, 47
Ludlamite 46
Luzonite 53
Lyellite 46

Magnetite 65
Malachite 46
Marshite 54, 56
Meerschaluminite 47
Mendipite 61, 64
Meneghinite 50
Mesotype 46
Miargyrite 54

Miersite 54, 56
Mispickel 48
Monazite 54
Muscovite 56, 57

Nagyagite 48
Natrolite 46

Oligoclase 64
Opal 47
Orpiment 55
Orthite 49
Orthoguarinite 55

Parahopeite 57
Paralaurionite 58
Paratacamite 59
Percylite 47, 49
Perovskite 54
Petzite 56
Phacolite 61
Phenakite 57
Pholerite 47
Phosgenite 58
Plagionite 53
Platinum 64, 65
Plumbogummite 55
Plumosite 57
Polybasite 51, 55
Potarite .65
Prasin 47
Priorite 56
Proustite 50, 51
Pseudomalachite 47
Pyrargyrite 50, 51
Pyrite 47, 64
Pyromorphite 57
Pyrostilpnite 51

Rafaelite 58
Realgar 48
Red silver ore 50, 51
Redruthite 48
Regnolite 53
Rhabdite 58
Rittingerite 51
Romeite 54
Ruby 64
Rutile 55

Sanguinite 51
Sapphire 60
Sartorite 62, 63
Schultenite 64, 65
Schwartzembergite 61
Seligmannite 56

Semseyite 53, 63
Senaite 54
Serendibite 55
Sillimanite 64
Silver 48

Skutterudite 47, 48
Smithite 61
Smithsonite 64
Sphaerostilbite 55
Sperrylite 65
Sphene 47
Spinel 60
Stannite 53, 54
Stephanite 50, 51, 53, 55
Stibnite 55, 57, 58
Struverite 55
Sulphur 47, 48
Sundtite 54
Svanbergite 55
Sylvanite 56

Tarbuttite 57
Teallite 56

Tennantite 53, 54, 56
Tetrahedrite 53, 54
Thomsonite 55
Tilasite 61
Tin 58
Topaz 55
Tourmaline 54
Trechmannite 61
Tripuhyite 54
Turgite 64
Turite 64

Ullmannite 57
Uranite 47

Valentinite 54
Vanadinite 47, 57
Vivianite 47, 54

Waringtonite 46
Warrenite 57
Webnerite 54
Willemite 65
Witherite 57, 58
Wolfsbergite 53
Woodwardite 47

Xanthoconite 51
Xenotime 54

Zinckenite 53
Zircon 48, 57
Zirkelite 54, 55, 61

The Earth Generated and Anatomized
by William Hobbs

An early eighteenth century theory of the earth
Edited with an introduction by Roy Porter

March 1 98 1 . 1 58pp. 6 plates, 8 text figures

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)

Historical Series Vol. 8 Paper covers, £16.00

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or by the Deluge, as is Vulgarly Supposed.

Also

Why and When the Said Hills and Mountains were raised. As also shewing not
only the certain Cause of the Ebbing and Flowing of the Tides, But even the Two
places where they are once in XV Dayes originally Moved ; and where they
ultimately meet each other. By which, as also by diverse Arguments, the Vulgar
Notion of the Moon's Governing them, is fully confuted.

Together with

Many other Philosophical Doctrines and Discoveries; Suitable to such a Subject;
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Seventy years of research in mineralogy and crystallography in the Department of
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The geological researches of Dr Thomas Horsfield in Indonesia 1801-1819.

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World List abbreviation: Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1982

ISSN 0068-2306

British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5DB

Historical series

Vol 10 No 3 pp 75-115

Issued 25 March 1982

#V GENERAL *

The geological researches of Dr Thomas Horsf ield
in Indonesia 1801-1819

John Bastin

School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London

D. T. Moore

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), London SW7 5BD

Contents

Synopsis 75

Introduction 75

Horsfield's origins and scientific career in Indonesia 76

Horsfield's later years in England 80

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Java 81

Catalogue of explanatory specimens to illustrate the mineralogy of the territory of

the native princes of Java 84

Horsfield's geochemical analyses 97

Chemical analysis of a volcanic sand and an iron-ore 97

Horsfield's mineralogical map of Java 104

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Bangka 106

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Sumatra 108

Catalogue ofdescriptive mineralogical specimens for Mr Ricketts Esq. . . .110

Acknowledgements 112

Notes 113

References 114

Synopsis

The American born naturalist, Dr Thomas Horsfield (1773-1859), is best known today as a zoologist,
botanist, pharmacologist and ethnologist; but his geological collections were sizeable. He wrote on the
chemical analyses of volcanic ash thrown out by the volcano Gunung Guntur in Java in 1803, and published
papers on the mineralogy of Java and Bangka. He was a Fellow of the Geological Society of London from
1821 until his death. His greatest achievement in the geological field, however, was the production of a
mineralogical map of Java in 1812.

There are no accounts of Horsfield as a geologist. An attempt is made here to describe his geological
activities in Indonesia, and catalogue his surviving geological collections from Java, Bangka and Sumatra.

Introduction

Among the early nineteenth century naturalists of Indonesia the name of Dr Thomas Horsfield
occupies a high and deservedly honoured place. For eighteen years between 1801 and 1819 he
travelled extensively through Java studying its flora, fauna and geology, and making large and
heterogeneous natural history collections which he later brought to London. He is perhaps best
known today as a zoologist because of his pioneering study, Zoological researches in Java, and the
neighbouring islands (London, 1821-24), and his work as the first Vice- Secretary of the newly
established Zoological Society of London. But in Indonesia his early interests were principally in
the fields of botany and geology, and while his contributions in the first of those fields were soon
overshadowed by the voluminous and sumptuous publications of Carl Ludwig Blume (1796—
1862), his work as a geologist remained unchallenged until the activities of Frans Wilhelm
Junghuhn (1809-1864) during the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s put them in the shade. So eclipsed,
indeed, were Horsfield's contributions in this field that no proper study has ever been made of

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.) 10 (3): 75-1 15 Issued 25 March 1982

75

76 J BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

them. Yet Junghuhn, who was never prodigal in his praise of his predecessors, paid Horsfield the
most generous of all tributes when he accorded to him the first place in the investigation and
description of Java from a geographical-geological point of view (Junghuhn, 1853-54, 1:98-99).

Horsfield's origins and scientific career in Indonesia

Thomas Horsfield was born at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and was baptized on 12 May 1773, the
third son of Timothy Horsfield Jr (d. 1789) and Juliana Sarah Horsfield (nee Parsons, 1738-1808).
His grandfather, Timothy Horsfield Sr (1708-1773) was born in Liverpool, England, and in 1725
emigrated to New York where he settled on Long Island and learned the trade of butcher
(McNair, 1942:1). In 1731 he married Mary, daughter of John Doughty, another prominent Long
Island butcher, and at about the same time became influenced by Moravian doctrines 1 ' 2 . In 1748

Plate 1 Dr Thomas Horsfield (1773-1859)

Reproduced from an uncoloured lithograph by the Dutch artist and lithographer, J. Erxleben, and
printed by Day & Haghe, London. Erxleben was working in Leiden until his departure for England
in about 1839. This, and the fact that Day & Haghe subscribe their names on the print as Litho-
graphers to the Queen, points to the lithograph being published during the 1840s, possibly in 1843 to
mark Horsfield's seventieth birthday.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 77

he requested permission of the Moravian authorities at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, to reside there,
but because of his involvement in Moravian affairs in New York he was asked to postpone his
removal. His children, however, were entered in the Bethlehem schools, and he himself moved
there in the following year. He was appointed Justice of the Peace of Northampton County in
1752 and in this capacity was actively involved in the defence of the town during the Seven Years
War. In 1763 he was commissioned Colonel of the forces for the defence of the frontiers of
Northampton County against Indian raids, but the appointment excited some jealousy and he
was obliged to resign his commission and consequently ceased to be Justice of the Peace. Some
time afterwards he moved back to Long Island where he and his wife died in 1773 (McNair,
1942:1-2).

Horsfield's father, Timothy Horsfield Jr, must have stayed on in Bethlehem after his parents'
return to New York since he married at Philadelphia on 14 October 1766 Juliana Sarah Parsons,
daughter of William Parsons, Surveyor-General and founder of Easton, Pennsylvania (Jordan,
19096:345; cf. McNair, 1942:2). She gave birth to three sons: Timothy, who died in infancy,
William (1770-1845), and in May 1773, at the house in Market Street, Bethlehem (P1.2), Thomas,
the future naturalist of Indonesia (Mr V. H. Nelson, Moravian Archives, Bethlehem; Jordan,
19096:345-46). Timothy Horsfield Jr died on 11 April 1789, his wife surviving him by nearly
nineteen years, until 17 January 1808 (Jordan, 19096:345).

Thomas Horsfield attended the Moravian schools at Bethlehem and Nazareth, and at Bethle-
hem appears to have learned something of the pharmacy of the day under Dr B. Otto (1711-
1787) (Diet. Am. biog.5 (1):236). His early interests in pharmacy and pharmacology as well as
other branches of natural science were developed at the University of Pennsylvania where he may
have studied under Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), James Woodhouse (1770-1809) and Dr Benja-
min Smith Barton (cf. Klickstein, 1953, McNair, 1942:2). Where he gained his knowledge of
chemistry is of interest since his later inorganic and analytical chemical activities in Java are
discussed below. He graduated in Medicine in 1798 with a thesis entitled An experimental
dissertation on Rhus vernix, Rhus radicans and Rhus glabrum, being a chemical description of the
toxic symptoms of poisoning produced by sumac and poison ivy. A year later he was appointed
Physician on the merchantman, China, which sailed from the Delaware River on 22 December
1799 and anchored off Batavia (Jakarta) on 15 April 1800 (Horsfield, 1805:75-85). He was so
delighted with the abundance and richness of the tropical flora and other natural productions of
Java that he resolved to investigate them. He returned to Philadelphia, collected books and a
modest array of scientific instruments, and returned to the island in October 1801 (Horsfield et al.
1838-52, Postscript :i).

In order to obtain opportunities for travel and research in the natural sciences Horsfield
secured appointment as Surgeon in the Netherlands colonial army. He settled initially at Batavia,
but due to the unhealthiness of the place he removed to the country shortly after his arrival and
carried out explorations in the Priangan Regencies. The eruption of Gunung Guntur (2249m)
during 6-7 April 1803 turned his attention to volcanology and geology and he obtained per-
mission to make a chemical analysis of the fall-out (Horsfield, 1814a). In 1804 he traversed the
south-eastern ridges of Gunung Cereme (3078m) and visited the hot springs nearby (Horsfield,
1816a:41-43). He next proceeded to the south of Sumedang where he first noted the prevalence of
limestone in the vicinity of the central mountain ranges of Java (Horsfield, 1816a:35-36). In the
southern part of the regency of Parakanmuntjang he examined a well whose water, after chemical
analysis, he demonstrated to possess many of the properties of European zelzer-water (Horsfield,
1814^:1-12). He explored the environs and ascended the eastern side of G. Guntur where he
examined the recent lava flows. Thereafter he visited G. Tangkubanprau (2076m) and descended
the interior walls of the crater (Horsfield, 18 16a :1 9-23), collecting samples of water which he later
chemically analysed.

On his return journey to Cirebon he made a detour to explore the environs of G. Tampomas
(1684m) and the northern foothills of G. Cereme, which he had skirted earlier. Travelling along
the northern coast of Java, he observed G. Sundara (3135m), G. Sumbing (3371m) and G. Prau
(2565m), south-east of Pekalongan, all of which, with the exception of G. Sumbing, he was later to
climb. He left Serondol in December 1804 for Ungaran, making a detour to climb G. Ungaran

78

J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

Plate 2 Horsfield House at 42 W. Market Street, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Built in 1749 by Hors-
field's grandfather as a family residence, it was later used as a general store and trading place when an
addition was erected in 1755. Horsfield was born in the house in May 1773.
Reproduced by kind permission of Call-Chronicle Newspapers, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania.

(2050m). Close to its summit he examined the remains of an extinct crater in which he found
traces of a sulphurous lake similar to those of G. Tangkuban-prau. He also examined on its
slopes, and in its immediate surrounds, a number of mineral wells. He proceeded to Salatiga and
on to G. Merbabu (3142m), which he partly ascended. He then visited Sela, situated on the
northern slopes of G. Merapi (2911m), the principal volcano of central Java which had erupted
with such violence in 1803 that a large portion of the top had collapsed, altering the shape of the
mountain. It is unlikely that he climbed to its summit on this occasion, though the matter is
confused by a later statement he made on the subject (Horsfield et al., 1838-52, Postscript :ii).

After July 1805 Horsfield journeyed to Jogjakarta (Horsfield et al., 1838-52, Postscript :ii) with
the object of investigating the range of hills which run along the southern coast of Java. In August
he visited Surakarta and made an excursion to G. Lawu (3265m), ascending its eastern side and
discovering an extinct crater and another which emitted fumes through apertures in the crust. In
October 1805 he proceeded northwards towards Grobogan and Blora with the intention of
investigating the salt wells which cover an area of several miles and furnish the Indonesians with
mineral and saline waters for medicinal use. He then travelled along the Solo river to Gresik, and
on to Surabaya whence he set off on a hurried visit to the Tengger mountains. After climbing G.
Bromo (2392m) he returned in January 1806 to Surabaya where he remained for three months,
meeting during his stay the French naturalist, J. B. L. C. Th. Leschenault de la Tour (1773-1826),

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 79

one of the naturalists on Baudin's voyage to Australia, who had visited G. Idjen in east Java
during September 1805 and the Tengger mountains during November of the same year, thus
anticipating Horsfield's visit by a little more than a month (Van Steenis-Kruseman, 1950:321-22).

Horsfield left Surabaya in April 1806 for Prabalingga, making a brief detour to examine the
mud wells near Buntidan (Horsfield, et al. 1838-52, Postscript :iii-iv). He explored the eastern side
of G. Semeru (3676m) and although he did not ascend to its peak he climbed along one of its
ridges far enough to obtain an external view of its crater (Horsfield, 1814c:18— 19). At Lumajang
he was able to observe G. Lamongan (1600m) which was showing signs of activity (Horsfield et
al, 1838-52, Postscript :iv). In June he set out for Puger and journeyed northwards towards
Jember and the plain bounded on the north-west by the Ijang range of mountains and on the east
by G. Raung (3332m) (Horsfield, 18146:20). He then proceeded to Bandawasa and on to Panaru-
kan to the east of G. Ringgit (1250m) (Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscript :iv). From Panarukan
he travelled to Banyuwangi where he spent more than two months making local excursions. He
ascended G. Merapi (2800m) and examined its crater, and at about the same time he crossed the
Straits and spent one day in Bali (Horsfield et al. 1838-52, Postscript :vi). In October 1806 he set
off on the return journey to Pasuruhan, via Panarukan, Besuki and Prabalingga, and again
explored the Tengger mountains during December (Horsfield, 1814c:30). In January 1807 he
visited Malang and Bangil, and after taking profiles of G. Arjuna (3339m) and G. Pananggungan
(1653m), he arrived at Surabaya in early February, where he remained for some time, visiting
briefly Madura. Thereafter he journeyed along the coast to Semarang, which he reached in
August 1807 (Horsfield etal. 1838-52, Postscript :vi).

Horsfield remained in the neighbourhood of Semarang during the rest of 1807 and for most of
1808 before proceeding early in 1809 to Prawata in Demak and on to Surakarta, which became
his principal residence during the remainder of his stay in Java. In 1810 he returned to G. Merapi
and G. Merbabu which he had partly surveyed five years previously. This time he ascended G.
Merapi making a minute examination of its crater. He also investigated the southern ridges of G.
Merbabu, and in 1811 the country between the western ridges of G. Lawu and the eastern
boundary of Mataram. On 5 June 181 1 he witnessed the eruption of G. Kelut (1731m) (Horsfield,
1816a:23). The capture of Java by the British later that year gave additional stimulus to his
researches 3 for he now received the formal patronage of the British Lieutenant-Governor,
Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826), who encouraged him to extend his enquiries to all
branches of natural history (Lady Raffles, 1830:603). His geological researches bore fruit when,
with Raffles' support, he published a series of papers in Volumes VII and VIII of the Verhandel-
ingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap der Kunsten en Wetenschappen, including the important
work, 'On the mineralogy of Java' (Horsfield, 1816a).

In 1812 Horsfield obtained permission to carry out investigations in west Java and he left
Surakarta in September of that year (Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscript :vii). In Batavia he was
prevailed upon by Raffles to join a Commission which was about to proceed to P. Bangka to
enquire into its affairs and resources and he spent some nine months travelling throughout the
island and investigating the tin mines worked by Chinese labour (Horsfield, 1848:299-336,
373-427, 705-25, 779-824; Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscript :vii-ix). He arrived back in Java in
July 1813 and after a brief interlude at Buitenzorg (Bogor) he settled again at Surakarta, where he
spent several months preparing his geographical and mineralogical description of Bangka for
submission to Raffles. In August of the following year he visited Jogjakarta before proceeding
southwards to Karang Bolong and on to Banyumas, returning to Surakarta in early November
(Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscripts; Horsfield, 18166:1-48). In mid- 18 15 he made another trip
into eastern Java, visiting Kediri and G. Kelut, which he ascended with a party of Indonesians
before returning to Surakarta in November of that year (Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscript:
xii-xiii). In 1816 he explored the regions of central Java, visiting G. Prau in October, and later G.
Merapi.

The same year saw the restitution of Java and its dependencies to the Netherlands, but
Horsfield was assured of the continuing protection and support of the new government for his
scientific activities. In 1817 he conducted further surveys of the regions around Surakarta, and in
the early part of 1818 he visited Bogor in west Java, and Batavia, where he received an invitation

80 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

from Raffles, now Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Marlborough, to join him in west Sumatra. As a
consequence, Horsfield proceeded to Semarang to load his natural history collections on board
the Lady Raffles (Captain H. Auber), which carried him to Benkulen at the end of June 1818. In
the following month he accompanied Raffles and his wife on a journey from Padang to Pagarruy-
ung in central Sumatra (Lady Raffles, 1830:340-65). In August 1818 he returned to Batavia, and
travelled through Banten to G. Karang (1778m) and on to Cianjur, G. Gede, and through
northern Java to Semarang. With his natural history collections on board the Lady Raffles he
sailed for England in January 1819, arriving at Portsmouth on 12 July of that year.

Horsfield's later years in England

Horsfield was engaged by the Directors of the East India Company 4 to arrange his collections in
the Company's Museum in Leadenhall Street, and to act as curator of the Museum under Sir
Charles Wilkins (1749-1836), who had responsibility for both it and the Library. Horsfield was
paid a fee of one guinea a day for his services, but after Wilkins' death the administration of the
Museum and Library was divided and he was placed in full charge of the former on an allowance
of £500 per annum (Arberry, 1967:48-49, 57). The work of Keeper of the Museum does not
appear to have been arduous (visitors to the Museum being restricted to Fridays), and Horsfield
was thus enabled to pursue with minimum interruption his own researches and writing. Between
1821 and 1824 his large quarto work, Zoological researches in Java, and the neighbouring islands,
was published, and this was followed in 1825 by W. S. Macleay's Annulosa Javanica, an account
of the insects collected by Horsfield in Java and deposited by him in the East India Company
Museum. Horsfield's Descriptive catalogue of his collection of Indonesian lepidoptera in the same
Museum was published between 1828 and 1829. Later, following the appointment in 1848 of
Frederick Moore (1830-1907) as Assistant in the Museum, he produced in collaboration with
him comprehensive catalogues of the lepidopterous insects and birds in the Museum (Cowan,
1975:273-84).

Horsfield was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London in 1820 and a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1828. He took an active part in the deliberations of the Zoological Club of the
Linnean Society which led to the formation of the Zoological Society of London (Bastin, 1970;
Bastin, 1973), and he acted as the first Vice-Secretary of the Zoological Society between 1826 and
1828. He joined the Geological Society of London in 1821 and served on its Council from 1823 to
1826 during the time when the Charter was under negotiation. He was also a member of the
Geological Society Club which consisted of members who dined together on meeting days.
During the mid- 1820s he was living at 6 Castle Street, Holborn, and during the late 1820s and
early 1830s at 2 Raymond Buildings, Gray's Inn. From at least 1835 until 1849 (judging by the
lists of Fellows of the Geological Society) he was resident at 20 Stonefield Street, Islington, and
thereafter at 29 Chalcot Villas, Adelaide Road, Camden Town, where he died on 24 July 1859,
aged eighty-seven years. He was buried at the Moravian Church burial ground at Chelsea five
days later, and his grave in the western plot of the cemetery still survives 5 . He was a life-long
member of the Moravian Church and had been admitted to the London Congregation in Fetter
Lane in December 1820 (Diary, volume 22, 1817-28, of the London Moravian Congregation).
His obituary notice in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (X 1860:xxi) describes him as a man
' of retired habits, but of amiable character and unblemished integrity '.

As a naturalist Horsfield's interests were unusually wide. His initial scientific interests in
Indonesia were in botany (principally materia medico) and geology, but he later broadened the
scope of his enquiries to include zoology, entomology and ornithology. These latter fields increas-
ingly engaged his attention and because of his involvement in the affairs of the Zoological Club of
the Linnean Society and the newly formed Zoological Society, and also because of his pub-
lications on zoological subjects, he became known primarily as a zoologist. He himself recog-
nized the fact though he continued for nearly thirty years to be associated with Robert Brown
and J. J. Bennett in the publication of Plantae Javanicae Rariores (Horsfield et al., 1838-52).
Geology for Horsfield was never a major interest, though he showed himself to be a reasonable
observer. His numerous and extensive excursions in Java enabled him to build up a geological

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD

Plate 3 Horsfield's memorial stone in the Moravian Church burial ground at Chelsea, London.

picture of the island which he published in 1816. From his detailed account of the volcanoes of
Java he understood that they formed a more or less uninterrupted east-west chain, and he
commented on them at some length in his early publications (Horsfield, 18146; Horsfield, 1816a;
Horsfield, 18166). Limestone ranges, alluvial plains, mud wells, hot springs, and wells of pet-
roleum or naphtha were also commented on. Horsfield never theorized on geological matters,
although he was well read on the subject 6 , and was aware of Werner's views, and those of the
Plutonists. But his greatest achievement was unquestionably the compilation of the mineral-
ogical map of Java and, a similar map of Bangka.

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Java

Four versions of a catalogue of geological specimens collected in Java by Horsfield exist in the
India Office Library and Records, London {MSS. Eur. F. 53). Three are in Horsfield's hand-
writing and the fourth is in that of one of his scribes. We learn from these manuscripts that 366
collecting localities were visited by Horsfield in Java during his eighteen years' stay in the island,
though only representatives of localities 1-273 are contained in the collection of his rock speci-
mens in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History). Two manuscript
versions of the catalogue of rock specimens made by Horsfield also exist in the Department of

82

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 83

Mineralogy Library, British Museum (Natural History), handed over in 1879 by the India
Museum with some 4500 rock specimens collected in India and elsewhere. A part of these
catalogues, corresponding with specimens 1-77, was published in 1816 (Horsfield, 18166: 156-63).
The first and complete version of the catalogue was written by a scribe and signed by Horsfield at
Surakarta on 31 May 1816. It lists specimens 1-216. A continuation signed by Horsfield is
undated and lists specimens 217-273. The second (incomplete) version of the catalogue, listing
specimens 115-207, is also signed by Horsfield and dated Surakarta 8 December 1815. It is
addressed and dedicated to Raffles. Specimens 1-77 were collected between August and Novem-
ber 1814, and specimens 78-273 during the same period and beyond to at least 1816.

Unfortunately, none of these catalogues contains information on the dates or circumstances of
collection. An edited version of the fullest of the manuscript catalogues in the India Office
Library and Records (MSS. Eur. F. 53) is given below. The number in the catalogue refers to a
locality, not to a specimen, and there may be one or more specimens per locality. The British
Museum (Natural history) number is given, together with some petrographic notes, and taxo-
nomic notes in the case of the fossil specimens. Correlation of the specimens and the catalogue is
relatively simple as Horsfield's number is attached to the specimens, together with the British
Museum number. The latter number was given when the collection was registered at the British
Museum (Natural History) probably in 1893, and bears no relation to Horsfield's numbers. The
British Museum numbers appear to have been assigned in ignorance of the text of the catalogue.
In the version of the catalogue printed below Horsfield's spelling and other idiosyncrasies have
been preserved, but certain of his petrographical and geological terms must first be commented
on, as their usage conflicts with contemporary practice.

Amygdaloid: an amygdaloidal lava in contemporary usage. See Johanssen (1931-8, 3:281). Hors-
field, however, sometimes uses the term to mean a lumpy or heterogeneous rock, see Pud-
dingstone.

Basalt: a basic lava, see Johannsen (1931-38, 3:246). To Horsfield basalt probably meant a black
crystalline fine-grained lava.

Burning volcanoes: a Neptunist concept. The Neptunists believed that volcanoes were the prod-
uct of burning underground coal seams.

Calcined basalt: The word calcined is used by Aikin and Aikin (1807:177) to mean an oxide, the
term being derived from 'calx' of the alchemists. Horsfield uses the term to mean a whitened or
weathered rock.

Floetz or Flbtz: a Neptunist term, approximating in palaeontological terms to Mesozoic.

Greenstone: a metamorphosed basic rock, rich in green minerals, e.g. chlorite and amphibole.

Hornstone: a siliceous rock having a sub-conchoidal fracture (Holmes, 1920).

Lava: an extrusive and fine-grained igneous rock. To the Neptunists lava was a rock distinct from
basalt.

Puddingstone: a conglomerate. Horsfield sometimes uses the word amygdaloid in the same sense.

Stone of watery deposition: sedimentary rock.

Trapp or Trap: originally a Swedish word, applied to igneous rocks which were neither coarsely
crystalline nor fine-grained and volcanic. See Holmes (1920), and Johanssen (1931-38). Hors-
field uses the word in the above sense.

Trachyte: The word was first used by R. J. Haiiy (1743-1822) in 1822, being derived from Tpo^vC
to mean volcanic rock of rough appearance (Johanssen, 1931-38, 3:67). Horsfield et al, (1838-
52 Preface :iii-iv) uses the word in this sense.

Tufa: a calcareous deposit from springwater. Horsfield, however, uses the term to mean tuff,
which is a pyroclastic rock.

The history of petrological nomenclature is a study of its own, and space prohibits more than
the note above, but Johanssen (1931-38) points out that many of these old names disappeared in
the nineteenth century with the introduction of the petrological microscope and thin section
making, when the evolution of the contemporary petrological classification based on the mineral-
ogy of locks began. Further, many of Horsfield's rock specimens are weathered, and not what a
contemporary geologist would collect. In the catalogue which follows, weathered specimens have

84 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

not been sectioned and the catalogue is simply annotated to the effect that the specimen is
weathered.

Catalogue of explanatory specimens [this is the title of Horsfield's (18166) printed account, the
MS title continues :] to illustrate the mineralogy of the territory of the native princes of Java.

Horsfield's (18166) account lists specimens 1-77 but due to the size of the MS catalogue the
printed entries, where the specimens no longer exist in the collection of the British Museum
(Natural History), are not listed as reference can be made to Horsfield's publication, where some
field notes are also recorded. From 78 onwards all the entries are listed and annotated. See also
Fig. 1.

I. Pebbles from the river Progo [Praga], near Brossot [Brasat]

[Specimen BM 73260, a water-worn pebble of pyroxene-hornblende andeside. Collected in
August 1814.]
[Specimens 2-3 missing]

4. Hornstone-rockfrom the eminence over Guwo-Duhar [Guwa Duhar] called Karang-Kuda
[BM 73225, limestone. See Horsfield, 18166:94-96.]

5. Puddingstone from the cavern of Karong-bollong [Karang Bolong] near the extremity of the hill,
at the discharge of the river Tshitshing-goleng [Cincingguling], from which the village and
settlement has derived its name

[No BM number, the specimen is a coarse conglomerate of igneous cobbles. Collected August
1814. See Horsfield, 18166:92.]
[Specimen 6 missing]

7. Stone of watery deposition, lamellar, nodular &cfrom the eminence between the discharge of the
river Tshitshing-goleng [Cincingguling] and the village Karang-bollong [Karang Bolong]
[BM 73315, pyroxene andesite. See Horsfield, 18166:92-93. Collected August 1814.]

8. Calcareous stone found in large piles on the hill above Guwo Nagassari [Guwa Nagasari]

[BM 73346, white fossiliferous limestone, bearing gastropod traces. Horsfield (18166:97-99)
states that the limestone above the cave contained numerous shells. Dr C. P. Nuttall of the
Department of Palaeontology, British Museum (Natural History) states that the fossil is a
holostomatous gastropod, possibly belonging to the fresh water family Thiaridae. According
to the Geological Map of central Java 1 : 500,000 (1977 ed.), the Karangbata penninsula is
composed of Miocene sedimentary rocks.
[Specimen 9 is missing]
10. White friable semi-decomposed lava (denominated Padas by the natives belonging to the sub-
stance named Tufa) found copiously on the hills on the route from Karang-bollong [Karang
Bolong] to Dshittis [Jetis] : (Similar to n° 7.)
[BM 73171, yellow quartzite. Collected August 1814.]

I I. Same substance (n° 10) more compact-forming Sandstone found on the same route
[BM 73427, quartz conglomerate.]

12. Hornstone-porphyryfrom the shore near Dshingkla [Cingkla]

[BM 73309, weathered lava.]

[Specimens 13-17 missing]
18. Cavernous lava from Udshung-agung [Ujung-agung] on Nuso Brambang [Nusa Brambang]

[BM number obscure, but the specimen is a pyroxene- and zeolite-bearing lava. See Horsfield,

18166:107-109.]

[Specimens 19-22 missing]

23. Calcareous stone from the foot of the hill near Karang-bolo [Karang Bolong],/rom the same
[BM 73175, amygdaloidal pyroxene-bearing lava, now much replaced by calcite. See Horsfield,
18166:110.]

24. Basaltic stones from the rivulet near the village Brambang— from the same
[BM 73330, vesicular andesite.]

25. Sand-stone, from an extensive stratum at banks of the river Adiradsha [Adireja] in the district
of Ay a [Ayah]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 85

[BM 73314, hornblende-pyroxene andesite much replaced by calcite. See Horsfield,
18166:110.]

26. Cavernous lava from the discharge of the river Adirodsho [Adireja] — near the village Sawangan
[Two specimens. BM 73207 and BM 73297 are hornblende andesites. See Horsfield,
18166:111.]

27. Lava separating into Rhomboidal fragments from the foot of the hill Bedagangan [Pedagangan]
opposite the village of Adiradsha [Adireja],/btwd at the banks of the river

[Two specimens. BM 73290, and 73392 are grey weathered lava.]

28. Volcanic tufa — Padas — of the Javanese from Suko-rosho [Sukaraja]
[BM 73319, agglomerate. See Horsfield, 18166:112-13.]
[Specimen 29 missing]

30. Lavas from the basin of the river Bandsharan [Banjaran] arising from the foot of the mountain
ofTagal [G. Slamat]

[Two specimens. BM 73183 and BM 73223 are basalts with phenocrysts of plagioclase and
pyroxene. See Horsfield, 18166:114. G. Slamat (3428m) produces pyroxene basalts and andes-
ites (Neumann van Padang, 1951).]

31. Lavas from the river Lo-Gowak [Lo-Gowok] arising from the same mountain

[Two specimens. BM 73267, dark vesicular pyroxene basalt. BM 73337 is a vesicular, but
different, lava. Horsdield, 18166:114-15.]

32. Lavas from the river Datar near Adshibarang [Adjibarang]

[BM 73191, grey vesicular basalt with phenocrysts as above. Horsfield was in this area in
September 1814. See Horsfield, 18166:116.]

33. Lavas from the declivity south of Adshibarang [Adjibarang] and from various other situations
in the neighbourhood of that village

[Two specimens. BM 73341, dark vesicular basalt, as above. BM 73193 is dense porphyritic
lava. Locality referred to in Horsfield, 18166:116 as 'an extensive channel of compact lava' in
the river Datar. Collected September 1814.]

34. Stone of watery deposition from a hill south-west of Adshibarang [Adjibarang] near the banks
of the river Tiaddshum [Tajem]

[BM 73232, grey sandy microfossiliferous limestone. See Horsfield, 18166:1 18-1 19.]

35. Varieties of stone of watery deposition from the same place (N° 34) in lamellar, nodules &c &c
[BM 73340, microfossiliferous feldspathic grit, containing planktonic foraminera of Tertiary
age, according to Dr J. E. P. Whittaker. See Horsfield, 18166:120.]

36. Sandstone from the same place

[BM 73215, fine-grained grit. See Horsfield 18166:120.]

37. Rock from the banks of the river Tiadshum [Tajem] (resembling Amygdaloid), near Adshi-
barang [Adjibarang]

[BM 73369, veined limestone. Localities 34-37 referred to in Horsfield, 18166:1 18-19.]

38. Lavas from the road towards Bodshing-Tongo [Bejing-Tongo?] in the district [of] Probolingo
[Purbalingga]

[Two specimens. BM 73261, pyroxene basalt. BM 73324 is vesicular lava. Horsfield was in this
area in September 1814.]

39. Varieties of Tufa from the river Kelawing near Probolingo [Purbalingga]
[BM 73282, agglomerate. See Horsfield 18166:121-22.].

40. Various siliceous stones out of the same

[Three specimens. BM 73405, greenish quartz tuff. BM 73204 is greenish yellow chert, and BM
73303 is reddish mottled jasper.]

41. Tufa from Kumutuk [Kemutug]

[BM 73333, agglomerate. See Horsfield, 18166:121.]

42. Compact lava, from the same place

[Two specimens. BM 73165, grey basalt with phenocrysts of pyroxene and plagioclase. BM
73164 is grey vesicular lava (unsectioned). See Horsfield 18166:121. The specimens came from a
rivulet. Collected October 1814.]
[Specimen 43 missing]

86 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

44. Rounded volcanic pebbles, from the same place

[BM 73291, hornblende andesite pebble. See Horsfield, 18166:126.]
[Specimen 45 missing]

46. Fragments from the large piles composing Gunung Lawet consisting of tabular &c Basaltes [sic]
[BM 73322, pyroxene-hornblende andesite. See Horsfield, 18166:127-29.]

47. Sandstone from the foot of the same (see N° 46)

[BM 73231, grey calcite-bearing grit. See Horsfield, 18166:130-31.]

48. Stones of watery deposition from the foot of the hill Pawinian, on the route from Bandshar
[Banjar] to Pagger-pella [Pagerpelah]

[Three specimens. BM 73389, reddish sandstone with a weathered crust. BM 73224 is cal-
careous shale, and BM 73361 is yellow sandstone. Horsfield passed this way in October 1814.
Some notes on the field occurrence are given in Horsfield, 18166:132-33.]
[Specimen 49 missing]

50. Basaltes [sic] in a state of decomposition from the northern declivity of the eminence of Pagger-
pella [Pagerpelah] on the road towards Karang-kobar

[BM 73245, agglomerate or lithic tuff. See Horsfield, 18166:133.]

5 1 . Varieties of original Basaltes [sic] from the same

[Two specimens. BM 73234, grey pyroxene andesite. BM 73399 is a more weathered and
probably similar rock. See Horsfield, 18166:133-34.]

52. Lava from the basin of the river Kali-urang [Kaliurang] near Pagger-pella [Pagerpelah]
(vesicular belonging to the lava[s] of later eruptions)

[Two specimens. BM 73259, grey pyroxene-mica diorite. BM 73287 is weathered grey scori-
aceous lava with decomposed phenocrysts. For localities 52-52b, see Horsfield, 18166:134.]
[Specimen 52b missing]

53. Compact clay in tables with angles rounded by attrition from the same place

[Two specimens. BM 73248, dark calcareous quartz-bearing mudstone. BM 73283 is a similar
rock. See Horsfield, 18166:135.]
53b. Stone consisting apparently of petrified wood with sparry depositions
[Specimen missing. See Horsfield, 18166:135.]

54. Compact Pudding-stone ( Amygdaloid? ) from the same (N° 52)
[BM 73363, a coarse conglomerate. See Horsfield, 18166:135.]
[Specimens 55-57 missing]

58. Basaltes [sic] in a state of partial decomposition from the section of an eminence on the road
near Kali-lunyar [Kalilunyah]

[BM 73328, grey pyroxene-bearing tuff. See Horsfield, 18166:138. Collected October 1814.]
[Specimens 59-62 missing]

63. [There is no entry in the MSS or in the printed catalogue (Horsfield, 18166:162). The
specimen, however, is a red tuff]

64. [No entry as above (Horsfield, 18166:162. The specimen is a grey tuff]
[Specimens 65-68 missing]

69. Basaltes [sic] from the rivulet Kali-Iring [Kali-iring] near the village of Kali-Bebber [Kalibe-
ber]

[BM 73334, grey pyroxene andesite. Collected October 1814. See Horsfield, 18166:148.]
[Specimen 70 missing]

71. Varieties of lava from the foot of the mountain Sundoro [Sundara] — near the village of Kali-
Bebber [Kalibeber]

[BM 73320, black scoriaceous pyroxene andesite. For localities 71-72, see Horsfield,
18166:149-50. Collected October 1814.]

72. Varieties of lava from the same place (N° 71) taken on the road between Kali-Bebber [Kalibe-
ber] and Kerteg [Kertek]

[BM 73268, grey scoriaceous olivine basalt.]

73. Varieties of lava found on the road between Kerteg [Kertek] and Redsho [Reja]

[Two specimens. BM 73358, black scoriaceous pyroxene trachyandesite. BM 73297 is reddish
weathered lava. See Horsfield, 18166:151. Collected October 1814.]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 87

74. Volcanic Tufa between Kali-Bebber [Kalibeber] and Kerteg [Kertek]
[BM 73305, lithic tuff. See Horsfield, 18166:151.]

75. Basaltic-rock separating spontaneously in tables from the tract between Dshittis [Jetis] and
Pakkis-wiring [Pakiswiring]

[BM 73277, grey pyroxene andesite. See Horsfield, 18166:153.]

76. Lava from the environs of Mount Sumbing found near Pakkis-wiring [Pakiswiring]

[BM 73266, a grey vesicular olivine-pyroxene andesite. This is consistent with Neumann van
Padang's (1951) data on the G. Sumbing lava.]
[Specimen 77 missing]

The printed catalogue (Horsfield, 18166:156-63) relating to Horsfield's journey in central Java
between 1 August and 4 November 1814 ends with specimen 77. The MS version of the catalogue,
with numbers in continuing sequence, relates to specimens that were collected during this and
other journeys in Java. Some of Horsfield's collecting localities are marked on Fig. 1.

78. Tufa — considerably resembling Puzzolana — consisty [sic] ofbasaltes [sic] &c agglutinate by
clay — in minute particles — Employed for building and ornaments at Japara

[BM 54985, grey pyroxene-hornblende andesite.]

79. Stones of watery deposition enclosing particles of pumice and other volcanic substances similar
to the Stone of the same formation found at the side of the hill south of Adshibarang [Adjibarang]
(vide above)

[BM 54985, grey tuffaceous rock. NB The same number as the above but a different specimen.]

80. Basaltes [sic] in a state of decomposition
[BM 73174, grey tuff of trachytic composition.]

81. Bog-iron-ore

[BM 73179, ferruginous concretion.]

82. Red-Iron-Stone
[Specimen missing]

83. Irregular concretions of a white Clayey substance — with adhering crystals of sulphur— from the
crater of mountain Ungarang [Ungaran]

[Specimen missing]

84. Minute Basaltes [sic] from the same (N° 83)
[BM 73176, grey pyroxene andesite.]

85. Varieties of lava from the summit of Mount Marapi [Merapi], with other volcanic productions
from the same mountain

[Horsfield visited the region of G. Merapi in 1805 and again in 1810. On one of these (or
possibly other) occasions seven specimens were collected. BM 73188, hypersthene andesite.
BM 73209, BM 73308 and BM 73310 are augite andesites; BM 73338 is hornblende-pyroxene
andesite; BM 73218 and BM 73312 are volcanic sinters.]

86. Tufa— from the same N° 85
[Specimen missing]

87. Lava ( ?Greenstone ) from the southern hills near Menyaran (belonging to the submarine lavas)
[Two specimens. BM 73270, greenish grey pyroxene andesite. BM 73294 is grey pyroxene-
hornblende andesite.]

88. Tufa from the same
[Specimen missing]

89. Minute fragments — chiefly volcanic — from a stratum of Limestone near Menyaran
[Specimen missing]

90. Limestone of a gritty texture from the declivities of a slight eminence near Massaran
[Masaran] — (near the road, where numerous rocks of the same substance project from the earth)
[BM 73180, yellow limestone.]

91. Varieties of Chalcedony from various places in the southern ranges
[Specimen missing]

88 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

92. Varieties of Agate— from the same ( vide N° 91 )
[Specimen missing]

93. Prase — near Kakkap [Kakap] in the range of southern hills on the road to Padshittan
[Pacitan]

[Two specimens. BM 73345, contact rock with pitchstone and andesite. BM 73272 is a pitch-
stone.]

94. Varieties of Hornstone from the environs of Padshittan [Pacitan] and the hills to the eastward
of that place

[Specimen missing]

95. Jasper from the river [blank] near Padshittan [Pacitan]
[BM 73166, red jasper.]

96. Porphyry from various situations in the southern hills in the environs of Padshittan [Pacitan]
[BM 73286, mottled, red jasper.]

97. Hornstone porphyry. From the southern hills near Padshittan [Pacitan] and Lorog
[Specimen missing]

98. Fragments of petrified wood rounded by attrition found among the pebbles in the river of
Padshittan [Pacitan]

[Specimen missing]

99. W oodstone from Cheribon [Cirebon]
[Specimen missing]

100. Rock of Floetz trap— formation which composes extensive portions of the ridges of the Sou-
thern hills passing into Hornstone-porphyry and other stones of the trap family, often covered or
pervaded by crystals of quartz

[Specimen missing]

101. Flint from the southern hills near Padshittan [Pacitan]
[Specimen missing]

102. Limestone in the form of Corallines, found in extensive masses in conjunction with the flint,
forming the basis of extensive hills

[Specimen missing]

103. Coral-rock filled with depositions or infiltrations of chalcedony, agate &cfrom the same hills\J\
see specimen N° 101 and 102

[BM 73317, a replaced rock showing possible original structures. The matrix is composed of
quartz, secondary silica, and ferruginous ' cement '.]

104. Iron-Pyrites found between Padshittan [Pacitan] and Lorog near the village [of] Kerpon
[Kerbon] : in the southern hills

[Two specimens. BM 73329, pyrite cubes and quartz. BM 73362, pyrite cubes aggregated with
quartz, sphalerite, etc.]

105. Iron-Pyrites (place where found not known)
[Specimen missing]

106. Bituminous shale- ( Br and-schiefer of Kohlen-schiefer Schistus-carbonarius of Blumenb :[)]
found between Padshittan [Pacitan] and Lorog in the same ranges of southern hills (See N° 104)
[BM 73278, contains amber (conceivably retinite) in a shale matrix. Sedimentary rocks of
Miocene age are known to occur in this part of Java.]

107. Y ellowish-ochreous clay found in the same stratum with N° 106
[Specimen missing]

108. Various stones of aqueous deposition found in the southern hills on the road from Padshittan
[Pacitan] to Kerpon [Kerbon] separating into various lamellar or amorphous particles
[Specimen missing]

109. Stones of aqueous deposition found chiefly in nodules of a reddish color at various sections of
the hills on the road to Kerpon [Kerbon] consisting chiefly of clay

[Specimen missing]

110. Stones of Floetz-trap formation resembling Basaltes [sic] found in the sections of the hills on
the same route (See N° 109) and between Padshittan [Pacitan] and Lorog, often in extensive
beds

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 89

[BM 7331 1, highly weathered porphyry.]

111. Calcareous Spar and Stalactites from the cave of Kalla in the southern hills about [blank]
miles west of Padshittan /Pacitan]

[Specimen missing]

1 12. Calcareous rock from various points of the hills ofProwoto [Prawata]

[BM 73239, pale yellow limestone. Possibly collected by Horsfield as early as 1809. Sedimen-
tary rocks of Pliocene age occur in this area, according to the 1 : 500,000 Geological Map
(1977 ed.).]

113. Steatite from the hills of Grobogan ? — (it was obtained at Prowoto [Prawata] from Mr S
[blank] who brought it from its original situation in the district mentioned.)

[Specimen missing]

114. Clay from the wells near Kuwu — throwing up an earthy substance (Compare the mire-wells
described by Pallas and Clarke) 7

[Specimen missing]

1 1 5. Tufa from an extensive layer several miles eastward ofMassaran [Masaran]
[BM 73382, grey pyroclasic rock.]

1 16. Varieties of Limestone from the neighbourhood ofJogorogo [Jagaraga]
[Specimen missing]

1 1 7. Amygdaloid from the river at Jogorogo [Jagaraga] taken near the dwelling of the Chinese
farmer of Customs

[BM 73307, fossiliferous limestone containing debris of gastropods, corals, and probably
Bryozoa. A Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone.]

118. Stone of aqueous deposition taken from the same place (See n° 117)
[BM 73356, grey clay-siltstone.]

1 19. Amygdaloid resembling lava from the rivulet Kumukus between Jogorogo [Jagaraga]
[Specimen missing]

120. The same substance (see n° 119) taken from another rivulet further eastward on the same route
[BM 73302, tuffaceous rock.]

121. Volcanic stone from the foot of Mount Liman near Ngettos [Ngetos]
[BM 73252, porphyritic, hornblende-pyroxene andesite.]

122. Basalt from the declivities of Mount Liman, near the road between Tunglur and Berbug
[Berbeg]

[Specimen missing]

123. Amygdaloid from the same route

[BM 73344, medium to fine-grained plagioclase- and pyroxene-bearing pyroclastic rock.]

124. Amygdaloid taken between Charuban [Caruban] and Tunglur
[Specimen missing]

125. Compact lava from the cave of Selo-mangling [Selamangleng] at the foot of the hill Klottok
[Klotok] near Kediri.

[BM 73255, olivine dolerite.]

126. Cavernous lava — similar to n° 12
[Specimen missing]

127. Basalt employed in the construction of the Chunkup at Sentul [BM 73217, pyroxene-bearing
trachyandesite.]

128. Lava from the rivulet at Sentul

[BM 73250, scoriaceous pyroxene andesite.]

129. Pebbles out of the basin of the river Konto

[Three specimens. BM 73162, a hypersthene-augite andesite pebble. BM 73270 is hornblende-
pyroxene diorite and BM 73323 is pyroxene andesite.]

130. Fragments of the large rocks of Basalt [sic] rising beyond the surface eastwards of the basin of
the river Konto

[Two specimens. BM 73184 and BM 73292 are pyroxene andesites.]

131. Tufa from the environs of the village Banaran in the district ofJurung-wangi [Jurungwangi]
[Specimen missing]

90 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

132. Basalt from the environs of the same village (See n° 131)
[BM 73280, hornblende-pyroxene andesite.]

133. White limestone, obtained from the southern districts employed in the construction of various
antiquities at the capital ofKediri

[Specimen missing]

134. Amygdaloid from Mount Wilis
[Specimen missing.]

135. Basalt from Mount Wilis
[BM 73257, pyroxene andesite.]

1 36. Basalt — partially decomposed — from the same (see N° 135)
[Specimen missing]

137. Basalt from the declivities of the hill Klottok [Klotok]
[BM 73243, pyroxene andesite.]

138. Lava taken from among the pebbles in the River ofKediri near the capital
[BM 73347, pumice.]

139. Amygdaloid from the banks of the river of Kediri taken near W aringin-anom from a very
extensive layer exposed at the banks of the river

[Specimen missing]

140. Lava taken from the basin of the river Pendem on the road between the Capitals ofKediri and
Srengat

[BM 73258, pumice or crystal tuff.]

141. Basalt from the hill Melliri [Meliri] near Srengat

[Two specimens. BM 73335, hornblende-pyroxene andesite. BM 73167 is hornblende andes-
ite.]

142. Amygdaloid from the same (See N° 141)
[BM 73357, agglomerate.]

143. Fragments of the stone employed in the construction of the Chandi ofGedog [Gedhog]

[BM 73229, altered pyroclastic rock. The specimen is clearly carved on one surface and, as the
catalogue claims, is from a temple.]

144. Fragments of the stone employed in the construction of the buildings of Penataran
[BM 73301, pyroxene andesite.]

145. Volcanic pebbles found near the village Benchi [Benci] — between Legok and Gebuganging
[Gebug-angin]

[Specimen missing]

146. Volcanic pebbles out of the Basin of the River Si-walan [Siwalan] near the road leading from
Blitar to Gebuganging [Gebug-angin]

[BM 73289, dark pyroxene-bearing andesite.]

147. Volcanic fragments from the Basin of the river Bajang — on the same road (See N° 146)
[Specimen missing]

148. Fragments of various antiquities found near the village Plumbangan in the district of Gebugang-
ing [Gebug-angin] shewing the constitution of the Basalt in this tract

[BM 73196, grey pyroxene-hornblende andesite.]

149. Pebbles from the Basin of the river Semut flowing from the mountain Klut [Kelut] — eastwards
of Gebug-anging [Gebug-angin]

[Two specimens. BM 73205, grey hypersthene-augite andesite. BM 73203 is grey scoriaceous
lava.]

150. Pebbles from the basin of the river Lesso [Leksa], a large stream arising from the foot of
Mount Kawy [Kawi]

[Two specimens. BM 73190, pale grey pyroclastic rock or sandstone. BM73177 is grey
hypersthene-augite-biotite andesite.]

151. Specimens of Trap rocks from the summit ofMt Klut [Kelut]

[Four specimens. BM 73327, hypersthene-augite-hornblende andesite. BM 73228 is
hypersthene-pyroxene-hornblende andesite; BM 73192 and BM 73208 are hornblende-two
pyroxene andesites.]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 91

152. Amygdaloid from the summit of Mount Klut [Kelut]

[Two specimens. BM 73263, hornblende-two pyroxene andesite. BM 73349 is greyish red two
pyroxene andesite.]

153. Varieties of Trap-rock taken from various points in the Basin of the River Siwalan flowing
from the summit of the Klut [Kelut]

[Twelve specimens. BM 73199, hypersthene-augite-hornblende andesite; BM 73380, medium
grained hornblende diorite; BM 73359, hornblende-two pyroxene andesite; BM 73370, two
pyroxene andesite; BM 73391, hornblende-biotite hornfels; BM 73260, hypersthene andesite;
BM 73295, altered hornblende andesite; BM 73186, altered pyroxene-bearing lava; BM 73250,
hypersthene-augite andesite; BM 73216, pyroxene andesite; BM 73304, two pyroxene-
hornblende andesite, and BM 7321 1 is pyroxene-hornblende granulite.]

154. Calcined Trap of a white color thrown from the Crater of Mountain Klut [Kelut]
[Two specimens. BM 73220, quartzite. BM 73251 is pumice.]

155. Lava from the basin of the river Siwalan
[BM 73233, dark pyroxene andesite.]

155b. Ball of Lava, probably artificial from the vicinity of the capital ofBlitar
[Specimen missing]

1 56. Calcined Trap — resembling pumice, taken out of the strata composing the banks of the river
Si-Walan [Siwalan]

[Specimen missing]

157. Fragments resembling sandstone and amygdaloid taken from the basin of the same river (See
n° 156)

[Specimen missing]

158. Semi-decomposed amygdaloid taken from an earthy stratum at the banks of the same river
(n° 156)

[Specimen missing]

159. Trap-rock taken from the village Semen, at the eastern boundary of Srengat near the foot of
Mount Kawy [Kawi]

[BM 73375, grey pyroxene andesite.]

160. Trap-rock from the river Soso near the northern boundary of Srengat
[BM 73226, weathered medium-grained lava.]

161. Specimens of pebbles and fragments of Trap-rock from the eastern branch of the river ofKediri
near the hanging bridge on the route to Selo-gurit [Selagurit]

[Specimen missing]

162. Impure limestone from the hill Pandan [Pandhan] — connected to the low ridge South of the
river last mentioned (N° 161) taken between Besole and Kudung-bunder [Kedhungbunder]
[BM 73353, creamy-pink mottled limestone.]

163. Stones formed by Deposition from water taken from the low southern ridge on the road from
Klampok to Ngekkul [Ngekul] two villages of the district ofLudoyo [Lodaya]

[BM 73397, pale flaggy siltstone.]

164. Sandstone from the same road (See n° 163)
[Specimen missing]

165. Sandstone employed as a whetstone from Gogo-Dessa [Gogo-Desa] in the district ofLudoyo
[Lodaya] westward of Ngekkul [Ngekul]

[BM 73400, buffsilty sandstone.]

166. Fragments of Amygdaloid composing the rock at the Cave near the summit of the hill Peggat
[Pegat]

[Specimen missing]

167. Volcanic pebbles strewed on the surface of the hill Gadja-kombang one of the points constitut-
ing the summit of the Mountain Klut [Kelut]

[BM 73422, grey hornblende-pyroxene andesite.]

168. Charcoal taken from the Alluvial Strata in the valley of Jurung-Gandul [Juranggandhul] on
the lower declivities of the mountain Klut [Kelut]

[Specimen missing]

92 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

169. Lava from the Basin of the river Gedog [Gedhog]
[BM 73404, grey scoriaceous pyroxene andesite.]

170. Fragments from the strata composing the sides of the basin of the river Gedog [Gedhog]
[Specimen missing]

171. Trap-rock taken from its original situation in the ravine east of the valley of Gedog [Gedhog]
on the road to the Crater

[Two specimens. BM 73200, pyroxene andesite. BM 73395 is basalt.]

172. Various fragments of Trap found in the Basin of the same river (See n° 171) between the
village Rawa and the external walls of the Crater

[Two specimens. BM 73306, quartz-tourmaline rock. BM 73384 is medium-grained augite
andesite.]

173. White gritty deposition found in extensive layers between the alluvial strata on the banks of the
river Rowo [Rawa]

[Specimen missing]

174. Limestone from Gamping taken near the source of the large river of Rowo [Rawa] from the
hills bounding the Rawa or lake which covers this tract, in the south

[BM 73198, buff to pink limestone.]

175. Trap from a steep pile composing the hill Budeg near the Guwo [Guwa] or Cavern
[BM 73394, andesitic tuff.]

176. Trap-rock passing into Amygdaloid — from the hill Rajeg-wessi [Rajegwesi]
[Specimen missing]

177. Lime-stone projecting in large rocks from an eminence on the eastern banks of the river of
Kampak near the village ofBendo [Bendha]

[BM 73421, bufffossiliferous limestone bearing Miocene crustacean remains.]

178. Amygdaloid rock passing into limestone from the road towards Rit a precipitous valley between
Kampak and Segoro-weddi [Segara Wedhi]

[Specimen missing]

179. Limestone taken from the same valley (N° 178) from an adjoining rock
[BM 73381, bufffossiliferous limestone.]

180. Various fragments of Trap-rock from the piles in the same valley near Rit (See n° 178)
[BM 73378, dark fossiliferous limestone.]

181. Decomposed Trap-rock from the hill between Kampak and Segoro-weddi [Segara Wedhi]
[Specimen missing]

182. Fragments of Trap-rock taken from the southern declivity of the hill between Kampak and
Segoro-weddi [Segara Wedhi]

[BM 73348, welded tuff]

183. Pebbles from the shore at Segoro-weddi [Segara Wedhi]
[Specimen missing]

184. Pebbles out of the bed of the River of Segoro-weddi [Segara Wedhi] taken near the village of
Prigi

[Specimen missing]

185. Fragments of Hornstone, Hornstone Porphyry &c found in various points detached on the
surface near the village Bendo [Bendha] in the district of Kampak

[BM 73396, drusy quartz rock.]

186. Pebbles taken at different points from the bed of the river of Kampak
[BM 73327, jasper-bearing conglomerate.]

187. Trap-rock from the ranges north of the capital ofTrengale [Trenggalek]

[Two specimens. BM 73178, porphyritic andesite. BM 73432 is porphyritic trachy-andesite.]

188. Fragments from a steep pile of calcareous rock called Watu-lawan [Watulawang], between
Trengale [Tranggalek] and Sawu

[BM 73202, buff limestone probably of Miocene age.]

189. Stone formed by aqueous deposition taken near the same rock (See N° 188)
[Specimen missing]

190. Stone of watery deposition taken from the hill Bubug on the further track towards Sawu

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 93

[Specimen missing]

191. Amygdaloid taken from the same track (See N° 190)
[BM 7341 1, porphyritic pyroxene andesite.]

1 92. Limestone, from the same track
[Specimen missing]

193. Trap-rock from the summit of the hill Iju [Ijo] forming one of the principal points of the ranges
south ofSawu

[Specimen missing]

194. Stones of deposition, taken in the ascent of the same hill
[BM 73401, quartz tuff.]

195. Amygdaloid forming part of a huge pile, conspicuous from the village Sawu in the ranges
situated nearly directly south of that village

[BM 73195, pyroxene andesite.]

196. Fragments ofHornstone dispersed on the surface at the village Mar an [Maron] near Sawu
[Specimen missing]

197. Detached fragments of car nelian found on the surface near the pile of Amygdaloid (See n° 195)
[BM 73374, is better described as chalcedony.]

1 98. Various specimens oflithologyfrom the environs of the village Sawu
[BM 73197, porphyritic trachyandesite.]

199. Hornstone porphyry from the hill Chumbri [Cumbri]

[Two specimens. BM 73426, jasper. BM 73230 is a ferruginous drusy quartz rock.]

200. Splintery Hornstone from Chumbri [Cumbri]
[BM 73189, tuff cut by a fine quartz vein.]

201. Varieties of Sandstone and Amygdaloid, taken in conjunction with N° 199 and 200 from the hill
Chumbri [Cumbri]

[Two specimens. BM 73339, silicified porphyritic lava. BM 73419 is silicified lava.]

202. Limestone taken from the hill Chumbri [Cumbri] above the tract covered with Hornstone
[Specimen missing]

203. Incrustation covering the Hornstone Porphyry in the rivulet at the foot of the hill Chumbri
[Cumbri]

[BM 73429, porphyritic andesite covered with an envelope of calcareous algal (?) growth.]

204. Various objects oflithologyfrom Chumbri [Cumbri]
[Specimen missing]

205. Pebbles out of the western branch of the Bengawan (or large river of) Pronorogo [Panaraga]
from the village Blemben [Blembeng] on the road to Kunti [Kunthi]

[Three specimens. BM 73265, andesite. BM 73373 is banded and contorted rhyolite (?), and
BM 73371 is amygdaloidal lava.]

206. Varieties of objects of Lithology from the hill Ngebel
[Specimen missing]

207. Various Specimens from the mountain Lawu
[BM 73418, pyroxene andesite.]

208. Rock of Floetz-trap formation forming the hill Chongol [Congol] in the ranges south of
Suro-kerto [Surakarta] near Kedung-prow [Kedhung-prau]

[Specimen missing]

209. Alluvial-rock and sandstone of a close texture from the same ranges Seen 208 — taken from
the hills in a southern and in a western direction from Kedung-prow [Kedhung-prau]

[BM 73419, pyroxene andesite.]

210. Limestone employed in burning quicklime at Suruwan [Suruhan]
[BM 73352, white porous limestone.]

211. White sandstone, cut into Slabs, tabulae &c employed at the capitals for flooring houses
[BM 54985, white microfossiliferous limestone.]

212. Limestone from the environs of the village of Karung-J oho [Karangjaha], taken in conjunction
with the Sandstone (n° 211)

[BM 73402, porous limestone.]

94 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

213. Amygdaloid (or pudding stone ) taken from the southern ranges near Karang-J oho [Karang-
jaha], above the Sandstone

[BM 73416, weathered lapilli tuff.]

214. Specimens from the hill Wejel [Wijil] between the Bazar Tanjung and Pependan, on the route
to Kedung-prow [Kedhung-prau]

[Specimen missing]

215. Fragments of the hills between Pepedan and Suruwan [Suruhan]
[Specimen missing]

216. Various specimens taken at a cavern in the northern declivities of the hill Chongol [Congol]
(near Kedung-Prow) [Kedhung-prau] from a steep pile of Trap

[Specimen missing]

217. Fragments of the wall of Mattaram [Mataram] — consisting of Basaltic Trap in a semi
decomposed state of a white color

[BM 73431, pumice tuff.]

218. Specimens of Tufa (padas) from the bed of the river Ello [Elo] at the bridge between Bojong
and Magelan [Magelang]

[Specimen missing]

219. Specimens from the bed ofProgo [Praga] river

[Two specimens. BM 73187, pyroxene andesite. BM 73420 is weathered lava.]

220. Specimens from the southern range about 2 miles west of Boro-budur [Barabadur]
[Two specimens. BM 73379, hornblende andesite. BM 73169 is weathered lava.]

221. Specimens of the temple of Borobudur [Barabadur] exhibiting several of the varieties of Stone
of which it is constructed (all belonging to the trap family)

[Three specimens. BM 73219 and BM 73385 are pyroxene andesites. BM 73415 is a pyroxene-
hornblende andesite.]

222. Pebbles from the Rivulet Kaliurang arising from the Sundoro [Sundara] with breccia and lava
taken from the basin of the same river

[Two specimens. BM 73386, hypersthene-hornblende andesite. BM 73238 is a weathered
conglomerate.]

223. Lava taken from the Strata of accumulation in the ravine at the foot of the Sundoro [Sundara]
which transmits the river Progo [Praga]

[Two specimens. BM 73383 and BM 73269 are pyroxene andesites.]

224. Lava in a state of decomposition from a section of a hill on the route from Chempoko [Cem-
paka] to Blederan

[Specimen missing]

225. Compact Trap (or Greenstone) separating conchoidal like Hornblende, taken from a hill on
the same route

[BM 73410, hypersthene andesite.]

226. Earthy deposition mixt with Sulphur from the Crater ofDiyeng [Dieng]
[Specimen missing]

227. Varieties of calcined Basalt nodular, lamellar &cfrom the same

[Two specimens. BM 73430, buff limestone. BM 73423 is pyroxene andesite, with a whitened
and weathered ' crust '.]

228. Simple earthy deposition white & clayey, from the same
[Specimen missing]

229. The same, consisting of calcined basalt formed into a clayey mass, from the Crater of Koppo
[Kopo]

[Specimen missing] , m m

230. Fragments of the entire masses of Trap in the Crater of Koppo [Kopo], calcined only on the
external surface

[BM 73365, olivine-pyroxene basalt with a weathered ' crust '.]

231. Scoreaceous [sic] substance found on the same plain, ([N°] 230) mixt with calcined basalt and
Clay, impregnated with particles of Sulphur

[BM 73409, scoriaceous lava and lappili tuff]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 95

232. Semi calcined Basalt of a reddish color from Koppo [Kopo]

[BM 73298, red/purple lava with phenocrysts and a white weathered ' crust '.]

233. Red lava (See the Specimens) from the Crater of Koppo [Kopo] — NB this occurs frequently
in various parts of the summit of the mountain Prow [Prau] or Diyeng [Dieng]

[Specimen missing]

234. Varieties of calcined Basalt (and trap) from the Crater of Koppo [Kopo]

[Three specimens. BM 73163, weathered lava with a whitened 'crust'. BM 73424 and BM
73425 are pumice.]

235. Varieties of the white clayey deposition (from the particles of calcined basalt) impregnated
with Sulphur, dispersed or accumulated in various parts of the plain of Koppo [Kopo]
[Specimen missing]

236. Detached fragments of Trap from the river Krechek [Krecek], Rowing into the lake ofMenjer
[Menyir]

[Two specimens. BM 73271, pyroxene andesite. BM 73182 is olivine basalt.]

237. Pebbles from the river Serayu, near Blederan

[BM 73413, biotite microdiorite. See specimens localities 69-76.]

238. Semi decomposed breccia resembling tufa, from the road between Blederan and Kerteg
[BM 73213, agglomerate.]

239. Fragments of lava, taken from the strata of accumulation, on the same route (as n° 238)
between Bo-merto [Bomerta] and Kerteg

[BM 73390, scoriaceous pyroxene andesite.]

240. Specimens of the varieties of Basalt found in the route from Kerteg to the valley of [the]
Begalo [Begaluh] river

[Two specimens. BM 73372, hornblende-pyroxene andesite. BM 73388 is pyroxene andesite.]

241. Pebbles from the River Begalo [Begaluh] on the road between Kerteg and Kali-lusi [Kali
Lusi]

[Two specimens. BM 73212 and BM 73221 are pyroxene andesite.]

242. Two fragments of trap taken from the river Wang [Wangi ?], between Kali-lusi [Kali Lusi]
and Luwano [Loano]

[Only one specimen survives. BM 73275 is hornblende-pyroxene andesite.]

243. Semi-decomposed Breccia from the descent between Luwano [Loano] and Br engkelan, form-
ing extensive strate [sic] near the valley of the Bogowonto [Bagawanta], on which are dispersed
separate fragments of Basalt

[Specimen missing]

244. Sandstone, compact, from the same route — NB this is also found in regular tables or Slabs
[BM 73222, yellow gritty limestone.]

245. Pebbles from the Bogowonto [Bagawanta] at the ford, on the high road from Jokjokerto
[Jogjakarta] to Brengkelan

[Three specimens. BM 73273, BM 73293 and BM 73299 are hornblende-pyroxene andesites.]

246. Calcareous rock from the first ascent near Pliper [Plipir] on the road from Brenkelan to
Jokjokerto [Jogjakarta]

[BM 73242, white limestone. Miocene rocks are mapped as occurring in this area.]

247. Calcareous rock, cellular and stalactitic from the cave Se-Bendo [Sibendah?] near the village
Se Bollong [Sibolong] on the same route (See n° 246)

[BM 73406, yellow concretionary limestone.]

248. Fragments of a horizontal stratum pervading a large mass of rude Breccia exposed in the same
route. (See N° 246)

[BM 73170, weathered igneous rock.]

249. Various fragments taken near the summit of the ridge on the same route (See n° 246.)
[BM 73398, weathered igneous rock.]

250. Diversified fragments from the pile of trap at Kali-tenga [Kalitengah], on the route from
Brengkelan to Luwano [Loano]

[Two specimens. BM 73201, weathered igneous rock. BM 73244 is altered olivine-pyroxene
andesite.]

96 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

251. Trappean pebbles from the bed of the river Gessing [Gesing] taken at the village of the same
name

[BM 73364, grey chlorite-bearing andesite.]

252. Calcareous pebbles from the same f[N°] 251 )
[73254, limestone pebble.]

253[a] Fragments from an immense layer of trap passing the bed of the river Gissing [Gesing] at

the village of the same name

[Specimen missing]
253b. Fragments of aqueous deposition taken at the termination of the transverse ranges between

Bogowonto [Bagawanta] and Progo [Praga] near the village Griga

[Two specimens. BM 73214, oblivine-pyroxene basalt. BM 73206 is slightly weathered chlorite

and calcite-bearing andesite.]

254. Fragments of decomposed Breccia resembling Tufa (See N° 238) forming deep perpendicular
strata at the banks of the river Progo [Praga] at Grubu [Grugu ?]

[Specimen missing]

255. The Same (N° 254) consisting of coarse fragments strewed near the banks of the same river
[BM 73408, lapilli tuff.]

256. Pebbles out of the river Progo [Praga] at Grubu [Grugu?] (See N° 254 & 255)
[Two specimens. BM 73246, a calcareous (?) tuff. BM 73331 is limestone.]

257. Limestone from the foot of the hill on the road to the cave Siro-Chollo [Siracala] near Krettek
[Kretek]

[BM 73210, white crystalline limestone.]

258. Limestone from the same road taken at the acclivity about halfway to the cave
[BM 73236, limestone matrix with well developed calcite crystals.]

259. A fragments [sic] of the trap rocks dispersed on this limestone f[N°] 258)
[BM 73377, basalt.]

260. Fragments of the limestone forming steep perpendicular piles on the summit of the ridge
containing the cave Siro-Chollo [Siracala] ; naked and distinctly visible at a considerable distance
[BM 73354, yellow crystalline limestone.]

261. Fragment of limestone taken at the cave of Siro-Chello [Siracala]
[BM 73235, yellow crystalline limestones.]

262. Fragments of the white stone or decomposed Breccia (resembling that of Mattaram) [Ma-
taram] employed in building the walls of the cave just mentioned f [N°] 261 )

[BM 73237, wedled tuff.]

263. Fragments of trap employed in constructing the steps leading to the cave — f[N°] 261)
[BM 73326, dark pyroxene andesite.]

264. Fragments of a large, steep pile of trap rocks terminating at the ocean near Manchingan
[Mancingan], within 200 yards of the warm bath Terang-wedang [Parangwedang?]

[Two specimens. BM 73403 and BM 73281 are pyroxene andesites.]

265. Fragments of the same f[N°] 264 ) pervaded by extensive veins of calcareous spar — NB The
trap is in some parts of this pile firm and entire in others loose, ochreous & decomposed

[Two specimens. BM 73321, vein of brown calcite in a limestone. BM 73433 is a vein of calcite
in a weathered igneous rock.]

266. A fragments [sic] of pumice found near the same pile [Specimen missing]

267. Fragments of the steep amygdaloidal pile terminating one of the ranges at the foot of which the
warm bath is situated

[BM 73414, agglomerate.]

268. Fragments of several separate rocks near the same pile (N° 267) pervaded with veins of
Calcareous spar

[BM 73343, agglomerate cemented and veined by calcite.]

269. Limestone from the rock projecting at Parang-tritis [Parangtritis]
[BM 73241, yellow fossilferous limestone.]

270. Fragments of the Stalactites formed at Parang-tritis [Parangtritis]
[BM 73428, crystalline limestone with rings of deposition.]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 97

271. Limestone from the point Selo-Sumbur [Selasumber], east of Parang-tritis [Parangtritis]
terminating the long bay that is here found in the coast

[Specimen missing]

272. Fragments of an immense pile of trap-rock terminating one of the ranges between Krettek
[Kretek] and Manchingan [Mancingan]

[Two specimens. BM 73366 and BM 73368 are hornblende-pyroxene andesites.]

273. Tufa partially decomposed, employed in constructing a well at Brambanan [Prambanan]. NB
This well is situated near the celebrated antiquities, and a work of the ancient inhabitants or
Bramins

[BM 73355, welded tuff.]

The whereabouts of specimens 274-366 referred to in the MS catalogue in the India Office
Library and Records, London (MSS. Eur. F. 53) is unknown. Considerations of space also make
publication of their descriptions impossible.

Horsfield's geochemical analyses

In addition to his prodigious field collecting activities in Java Horsfield was also busy in the
laboratory. His chemical analyses of volcanic ash thrown out by G. Guntur in 1803 and pyrite
ore found in the highlands of Jakarta were published in 1814 (Horsfield, 1814a) and surprisingly
reveal him to be a competent analyst by the standards of his day. These analyses, however, should
first be set within the context of the mineralogical/petrological chemistry of the time. Hey (1973)
points out that T. O. Bergman (1735-1784) was probably the first to attempt a complete analysis
of a mineral in the 1770s. M. H. Klaproth (1743-1817) added his own contribution to analysis
during the late eighteenth century, and by 1784 Richard Kirwan (1733-1812) was able to list 74
analyses of rocks and minerals which had been done by himself and others. The work of Kirwan
(1784) and Klaproth (1801) was probably known to Horsfield, whose analyses, though published
in 1814, were recorded in the Dutch language in 1803. A translation of Horsfield's (1814a)
analysis scheme, annotated with chemical notes, is given below.

Chemical analysis of a volcanic sand and an iron-ore

By Thomas Horsfield, Med. Dr.

(Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet., 7, no. Ill (1814), pp. 1-8.)

/. Chemical analysis of a volcanic sand

In the night of 6 and 7 April 1803, and during a few hours of the last mentioned day a fine, black,
sandy material was precipitated very slowly from the air in the town and neighbourhood of
Batavia. Initially it was not known where this material came from, and opinions about it were
divided. After a few days intelligence was obtained from the highlands that Thunder Mountain
{Donderberg), or Goenoeng Goentoer, in the district of Timbangantang, had been burning
violently from the 3rd to the 15th of April, and had thrown out very great quantities of Lava
[Lava] and Sand [Zand] ; the finest particles of this sand had been carried by the southerly wind
as far as Batavia.

The purpose of the following experiments was to determine how far this sand in constituent-parts
corresponded with the usual Volcanic emission, and it appeared from this, that this same [sand]
is only a powdered Lava. The colour of this Volcanic Sand is black or very dark greyish, and
when collected in some quantity resembles a very fine powder, in which a few glistening particles
can be observed; this same material is strongly attracted by the Magnet.

Experiment I. Two hundred grains [in weight] of this Sand were heated for an hour in an ounce
of Aqua regia [Koningswater] which had been diluted with a few ounces of distilled water; the
liquid was now isolated by filtration, and the residue, having been washed out with distilled
water, was carefully dried; it weighed exactly one hundred and seventy five grains.

98

J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

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GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD

99

200 grains volcanic sand

partly dissolved with Aqua regia [Experiment I]

residue (175 grns)

+ K 2 C0 3 [Experiment II]

+ H 2 S0„ [Experiment III]

precipitated
30 grns dried
(possibly basic carbonates)

Solution A

filtrate discarded

residue

filtrate

+ K 2 C0, [Experiment IV]

"silica"
158 grns

precipitate

25 grns dried

(possibly basic carbonates) B

filtrate - discarded

acetic acid [Experiment V]

solution + H 2 S0»
Ca & Mg sulphated

solution
MgSO.

+ K 2 C0 3

residue
CaS0„.2H 2
dried 12 grns

filtrate
+ K 2 C0 3

precipitate

dried 5 grns
"Magnesia" probably
the basic carbonate

dried IS grns
alumina

residue 25 grns

dissolved in HC1 [Experiment VI]

+ K^Fe(CN), [prussiate of potash]

filtrate - discarded

precipitate
(Prussian Blue)

heated with

K 2 C0 s , washed & dried

10 grns ferric oxide

Fig. 2 A flow diagram illustrating Horsfield's analytical scheme for volcanic ash. By this scheme any
manganese present would be found with the magnesia, titania and phosphate with the alumina, and
the alkalis would be lost.

100 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

Experiment II. From the solution the dissolved parts were precipitated by the plant alkali
[planten loog-zout], which on the filter [filtrwri] well washed out and carefully dried, weighed
thirty grains.

Experiment III. Since the remaining Sand from the First Experiment was still partly attracted by
the Magnet, so was the same [sand] diluted with sulphuric acid [zwavel-zuur], repeatedly heated,
until no soluble parts showed; the insoluble residue, after washing out, was collected on the filter
and dried ; it weighed a hundred and fifty eight grains ; nothing of this was attracted by the
Magnet.

[The material undissolved by the aqua regia followed by sulphuric acid will not be all silica;

whether the ' sand ' was volcanic glass or partly crystalline it will not wholly be decomposed

by acid.]

Experiment IV. To this solution made by sulphuric acid [zwavel-zuur] was added the plant alkali
[planten loogzout], until no further precipitation took place — The dried residue weighed twenty
five grains.

Experiment V. The residue of the last Experiment, weighing twenty five grains, and that of the
second Experiment, weighing thirty grains, were mixed and heated with distilled acetic acid
[azijn], in order to determine the lime [kalk] or magnesia [bitter dor de], which they might
contain. — The indissoluble parts were washed out on the filter, and then carefully dried ; they
weighed exactly twenty five grains. — The acetic acid \_azijn~] was evaporated until dry, and on the
residue cast diluted sulphuric acid [zwavel-zuur], in order to combine the calcareous earth
[kalkdarde] to the selenite \_se\eniet or sulphas calcis] and with the magnesia [bitterdarde] to
epsom salt [bitterzout or sulphas magnesia']. A few ounces of the distilled water were added to
this, in order to separate the epsom salt [bitterzout] from the indissoluble selenite [seleniet].

From the filtered liquid the magnesia [Bitterdarde] was precipitated by the plant alkali
[planten loogzout], which when dried weighed^zue grains.

The dried selenite [Seleniet] weighed eighteen grains; (of which about two-thirds or twelve
grains were calcareous earth [kalkdarde], the remainder were sulphuric acid [zwavel-zuur] and
water).

[The united potassium carbonate precipitates, treated with acetic acid, will extract nearly all
the lime and magnesia, but some alumina may be dissolved as well, and if so will be counted
as magnesia; the small quantity of magnesia found suggests that this separation was in fact
good. 'Selenite' formation will not give a perfect separation of lime from magnesia as
gypsum is not quite insoluble (solubility about 0-5%), but again, the magnesia suggests quite
a good separation. The 'magnesia' will be basic magnesium carbonate before drying; what
remains after drying depends on the drying temperature, but Horsfield's 2-5% MgO is not
far out — although the ' silica ' will include much MgO, probably as pyroxene (insoluble in
acid). The dried ' selenite ' is a problem ; gypsum is CaS0 4 . 2H 2 with 32|% (not two-thirds)
CaO; if dried at a temperature above 120°C, it loses water leaving CaS0 4 .|H 2 (Plaster of
Paris), which has 39% CaO; so the selenite contained somewhere between 6 and 7 grains
CaO.]

Experiment VI. The remaining precipitate after treatment with acetic acid [azijn zuur], which
weighed twenty five grains (see last experiment) was dissolved in diluted muriatic acid [zeezout
zuur] : To the solution was added Prussiate of potash [blaauwzuur hog zout or Prussias
potassae], for as long as any precipitation took place.

The Prussian blue [blaauw-zure ijzer or Berlijnsch blaauw] was collected on a filter cloth,
heated with plant alkali [planten loogzout], and well washed out with distilled water; by that
means the Prussic acid [blaauw zuur] was broken up and only the iron left, which dried weighed
ten grains.

Experiment VII. To the filtered liquid, after the removal of the Prussian blue [blaauw zure ijzer],
was added plant alkali [planten loogzout] until no further precipitation took place. — The
precipitate was then well washed out and dried, it was pure alum earth [Aluin-aarde], and
weighed thirteen grains —

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 101

[The precipitate would not lose all water on drying, it takes a bright red heat to dehydrate
alumina fully — but there were probably not less than 12 grns A1 2 3 .]
Two hundred grains of this volcanic Sand thus consist of:

5 grains of magnesia [Bitteraarde], Experiment V. [2-5% magnesia]

12 grains of calcareous earth [Kalkaarde], Experiment V. [6% lime]

10 grains of iron [Yzer], Experiment VI. [5% total iron oxides]

13 grains of alum earth [Aluinaarde], Experiment VII. [6-5% alumina]

158 grains of silica (siliceous earth) [Kiezelaarde], Experiment HI. [79% silica (see note

to Experiment III)]

198 grains
2 lost [10% alkali's lost?]

200

According to the exact chemical analysis the usual volcanic products like Lava [Lava], Basalt
[Basalt] &c. consist of silica [Kiezel], alum [Aluin] and calcareous earth [Kalkaarde] with a
little magnesia [Magnesia] and iron [Yzer], in different proportion of mixing; to show [prove]
the similarity of the constituent-parts of this sand with these volcanic substances was the purpose
of the narrated experiments.

[G. Guntur is known to produce basalts and augite-hypersthene andesites. Neumann van
Padang (1951:91) gives two analyses of the lava. A value of 55-65% for the silica might
reasonably be expected for andesite (Le Maitre 1976), and for pyroxene andesites in general
(Moore et al. 1979 Nos 73, 104, 117, 120, etc), so Horsfield's silica figure of (79% is very high
for an andesite. Neither aqua regia nor dilute sulphuric acid however is competent to give a
complete attack on the silicates. The roughly equal proportions (but not the values) of CaO,
A1 2 3 , and total iron, and about half as much MgO in the final analysis, look reasonable.
For this date, however, this is a good analysis. The factor of two-thirds for the lime in
'selenite' was current in Horsfield's day and was not corrected generally until about 1807-
10. Klaproth used a better figure, but most of his work, which included the first really
effective attack on the silicates (fusion with alkali), was produced around 1803-07 and would
not have been available to Horsfield. See also note to Experiment V above. (We are grateful
to Dr M. H. Hey of the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History) for
this and the other notes on Horsfield's analysis schemes which are inset with the translation,
with the exception of the note on Junghuhn.)

The very different results of the chemical analysis made by P. J. Maier in Batavia in 1843 of
the volcanic ash thrown out by G. Guntur on 4 January of that year was largely attributed
by J. C. A. Diederichs (under whose supervision the experiments were conducted) to the
advance in chemical analysis since Horsfield's day. Maier's analysis showed a marked de-
crease in the percentage of silicia (34-2%) and magnesia (0-68%), and a substantial increase
in iron-oxide (18- 1%). Junghuhn, who fully records the details of Maier's analysis and
Diederichs' comments, defends Horsfield's analysis by rightly emphasizing the fact that the
same volcano will throw out different products during different eruptions (Junghuhn, 1853-
54,11:115-18).

Assuming that the chemical analyses concerned are accurate (for discussion see Hey,
1973), the present day petrologist uses the variation of chemical composition in lavas to
establish a differentiation trend which can be represented graphically. The history of the
evolution of petrological theory however is too involved to discuss here, but an early and
still valuable landmark was written by A. Harker in 1909, The natural history of igneous
rocks. Methuen, London. 384 pp.]

//. Chemical experiments with Massoerong

The mineral substance, which is the subject of the following experiments, is an iron-ore, which is
found in the Jakarta Highlands : the pieces are of different size, of half a drachma to some pounds
in weight; the outside colour is whitish-yellow, and glittering; they are brittle and easy to shatter,

102 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

on the inside they are lighter in colour and more glittering. Most of the fragments are of an
irregular crystal shape; some have the shape of regular four-sided, sharp edged crystals; by the
Natives they are often made into knotty points [knobs: knooperi] ; The usual Dutch name is
steel-stone [staal-steen].
The following experiments show the constituent-parts.

Experiment I. A hundred grains [in weight] of this powdered iron ore in a small covered crucible
were exposed to a fierce heat for half an hour; when the crucible was opened the mass blazed like
pyrophorous [pijrophorus] and abundant sulphurous fumes [zwavel dampen] arose; there were
no traces of Arsenic [Arsenic"]. After cooling, the mass weighed seventy five grains — It was now a
dark brown colour, and was easy to grind to powder.

[The ' pyrophorous ' was simply finely divided metal, usually iron; if exposed to air while still
hot, it oxidises so rapidly that a sample that has cooled a little below red heat will glow
brightly again, — hence the name.]

Experiment II. A hundred grains of finely powdered Massoerong were heated with an ounce of
dilute muriatic acid [zee-zout zuur] ; during the heating many sulphurous fumes [zwavel dampen]
developed. — The liquid was separated and the residue well washed out; it weighed dried ninety
grains, and it was still strongly attracted by the Magnet.

[An attack with dilute hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) will not dissolve pyrite, and only
attacks magnetite slowly. It would dissolve pyrrhotine and would attack any partly oxidised
pyrite. From this experiment it appears that the ore probably contained about 90% of
pyrite + magnetite, or more probably the magnetic mineral pyrrhotine, + gangue.]

Experiment III. This residue was mixed in a small crucible with 15 grains of coal dust and made
red-hot for an hour; the residue now repeatedly heated with diluted sulphuric acid [zwavel zuur]
until nothing more was dissolved; on the liquid swam glassy little scales, which on the fire
smoked like sulphur [zwavel]. After the decomposition the residue weighed twelve grains, and
was not attracted by the Magnet; it was for the greater part Silica [Kiezel-aarde].

[This experiment determines the gangue at 12%; the ignition with coal dust would reduce

the pyrite, magnesite, and pyrrhotine to acid-soluble metal.]

Experiment IV. The solutions of the Second and Third Experiments were mixed, and by the plant
alkali [planten loog-zout] all the dissolved parts precipitated, which on the filter cloth were
washed out and after this dried. — They weighed seventy grains.

[This experiment found ferric oxide 70%, corresponding to 49% iron; this figure is probably
a little high, for if the dried (not ignited) iron oxide was substantially FeO . OH (goethite)
which it might well have been, it would have been 63% Fe 2 3 . Merely drying a ferric
hydroxide precipitate will leave some water; a better figure for the iron is derived by
combining Experiments I and II, subtracting 12% gangue from the 75% residue of Experi-
ment I which gives 63% Fe 2 3 , containing 44% iron, which if present wholly as pyrite
would need 50j% sulphur. If we accept 12% gangue and 44% iron we could have 44%
sulphur by difference; and if part of the iron is present as magnetite, or pyrrhotine, or both,
the 6% difference is not serious. In fact, the analysis could be interpreted as (assuming no
magnetite, — pyrrhotine being magnetic) :

gangue 12%

pyrite (FeS 2 ) 71% = 33% Fe, 38% S

pyrrhotine (Fe 7 S 8 — FeS) 17% = 11% Fe, 6% S

44% iron 44% sulphur

Experiment V. These seventy grains were heated in six ounces of distilled acetic acid [azijn] ; the
undissolved parts isolated by filtering, and the acetic acid [azijn] evaporated until dry; diluted
sulphuric acid [zwavel-zuur] was added, in order to separate the possibly present calcareous
earth [Kalk-aarde] from the Magnesia [Magnesia] ; the undissolved parts, which were selenite
[seloniet] weighed dried two grains; and from the liquid, diluted with distilled water, were
precipitated by plant alkali [planten loogzout] three grains of Magnesia {Bitter aarde).

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD

103

100 grains are roasted

most of the S driven off [Experiment I]

and the iron oxidised

75 grns [hence 25 grns S]

ore + HC1 [Experiment II]

filtrate

+ K a C0 3 [Experiment IV]

[char]coal dust, heated
for 1 hour

extracted with H 2 S0 t

residue
"silica"

precipitate

filtrate - discarded

+ Acetic acid [Experiment V]
J

filtrate + H 2 S0„

+ K a C0,

Magnesia

residue dissolved in HC1 [Experiment VI]

+ K»Fe(CN),

precipitate

filtrate

+ K a C0 3 [Experiment VII]

"selenite"
CaS0«.2H,0

precipitate
(Prussian Blue)

heated with K 2 C0 3
washed and dried

"Iron calx"
[iron oxide]

Fig. 3 A flow diagram illustrating Horsfield's analytical scheme of a pyrite/pyrrhotine ore.

104 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

Experiment VI. After heating with acetic acid [azijri] the undissolved parts (the last experiment)
were dissolved in hydrochloric acid \zeezout zuuf] and diluted with water; Prussiate of potash
[blaauw zuur loog zout] was added until no more precipitation had taken place; the precipitate
was separated by filtration and heated with plant alkali [planten-loogzout] ; the well washed out
and dried Iron-calx [Yzer-kalk~\ weighed forty-nine grains.

Experiment VII. From the filtered liquid (of the Sixth Experiment) were precipitated by the plant
alkali [planten-loogzout~\ six grains of alum-earth [Aluin-aarde].
According to these experiments 100 grains of Massoerong consist of

25 grains of sulphur [Zwaye/], Experiment I. [25%]

49 grains of Iron-calx [Y zer-kalk], Experiment VI. [49%]

23 grains of Earthy (terreous) parts [Aardachtige deelen], [23%]

Experiments II, V and VII.

3 grains (by loss) [3%]

100 grains.

[At the date of this work, it was not commonly realized that in sulphides the sulphur is
combined with a metal, not with a metallic oxide; hence Horsfield assumes that the 25% loss
of weight in Experiment I is sulphur whereas in fact 44% of sulphur has been lost and
replaced by 19% oxygen;

the two reactions are: Pyrite 4FeS 2 + 30 2 — ► 2Fe 2 3 -I- 8S

Pyrrhotine 4FeS + 30 2 -> 2Fe 2 3 + 4S]

Horsfield's minora logical map of Java

Horsfield intended that his paper ' On the mineralogy of Java' (1816a) should be accompanied by
a mineralogical map of the island, but what he compiled for the purpose was adjudged insuffi-
cient for publication (Horsfield et al., 1838-52, Postscript: ii, footnote). The map in question may
possibly be that in Horsfield's hand in the India Office Library and Records, London. It is, in any
case, to be doubted if the Government Press at Batavia which printed his paper had the technical
apparatus at that time to produce such a map. It was therefore only with the publication in
London of the large map of the island in Raffles' The history of Java (1817) that there appeared as
a modest inset Horsfield's ' Mineralogical sketch of the island of Java', dated 1812. (Fig. 4). It was
later reproduced (also in colour) with lettering in French in Fr. J. F. Marchal's Description
geographique, historique et commerciale de Java et des autres iles Varchipel Indien (Brussels,
[Paris], 1824-25).

The map was made at a time when geological maps were being prepared elsewhere. For
example, the geological map of the United States by William Maclure (1767-1840) appeared in
1809 with a French translation in 1811 (White, 1977), and William Smith (1769-1839) published
his large geological map of England in 1815. Earlier, Smith had produced two smaller geological
maps, one of the Bath neighbourhood in 1799, and a simple geological map of England and
Wales in 1801 (Eyles, 1969). Thus Horsfield's map was more or less contemporary with these 8 .

From a geological standpoint, however, there are differences between Java and England. Java
is dominated by large, active volcanoes and their products. Sedimentary rocks are few and, with
the exception of some Mesozoic sediments, are Tertiary in age or younger. Hence we cannot
expect a geological map of the same type as Smith's with the representation of England's
fossiliferous sedimentary strata. Horsfield did comment on fossils at, for example, his locality 8,
where he noted that the stone contained shells. Apart from rocks containing microfossils, which
Horsfield would not have known about, he collected other fossiliferous specimens, most notably
at his localities 117 and 177 (see catalogue). But in the main he was silent on stratigraphical and
palaeontological considerations. Inevitably, lavas predominate both on his map and in his col-
lection. Horsfield's mineralogical map was therefore well named. Unfortunately techniques did
not exist at that time for examining lavas. Nor had our contemporary mineralogical classification

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD

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of rocks been produced; this had to wait until the 1850s when there came about improvements in
the petrological microscope, and, as important, a technique for making thin sections of rocks.

Whatever its limitations, Horsfield's map held its position for more than thirty years, largely
because the early members of the Natural Sciences Commission in Indonesia devoted their
principal attention to botany and zoology, with a consequent neglect of geology and mineralogy.
This situation was eventually remedied with the arrival in Java in 1835 of F. W. Junghuhn who,
in a series of articles during the 1 840s, in his Topographische und N aturwissenschaftliche Reisen
durch Java (Magdeburg, 1845), and most notably in his Java, zijne gedaante, zijn plantentooi en
inwendige bouw (Amsterdam, 1850-53; The Hague, 1853-54), revolutionized the study of Indon-
esian geology and vulcanology. In the latter work Junghuhn explicitly states that his principal
aim was to draft, on the basis of the labours of Horsfield and Raffles, an improved location map
of the volcanoes of Java. He noted one or two inaccuracies in Horsfield's mineralogical map (the
omission of G. Raung and the representation of G. Idjen by the word ' Tashem ') and then went
on to pay the following remarkable tribute to his American predecessor (Junghuhn, 1853-54,
1:98-99):

One must do justice to the man, to admire the tenacity of him, who in an age when
travelling in Java, namely from 1800 to 1812 [sic], was attended with so many greater
difficulties than at present, assembled such complete materials for such a comprehensive
work, for a work, that, relative to Java, may be taken as the first of its kind. Th. Horsfield
was the first naturalist who made his way through the age-old forests of Java and at the
same time the first who has investigated and described the island from a geographical-
geological point of view.

Horsfield paid his own tribute to the German naturalist in 1852 (Horsfield et al., 1838-52,
Geographical Preface :ii-iii), after the publication of Volume I of Junghuhn's Java, containing a
hypsographical representation of all the island's volcanoes :

As a proof of extent of research, perseverance of labour, skill and ingenuity of construction, it
is, in my opinion, unequalled by any similar representation of a volcanic range. This work is
the result of many years' research in Java, during which every individual of the series of
volcanos, forty-six in number, with a single exception, was ascended, examined, described
and illustrated by many local maps, diagrams, views of craters and profiles.

He went on to amplify Junghuhn's corrections of his mineralogical map and to explain the
circumstances of its compilation (Horsfield et al, 1838-52, Postscript :ii, n.*):

In the paper referred to [' Essay on the mineralogy of Java ' (Horsfield, 1816a)] it was my
object to give a general, though necessarily imperfect enumeration of the series of volcanos,
extending from west to east, through the whole island. At the same time I had compiled
hastily a geological sketch, which was not sufficiently correct for publication. It may there-
fore be useful on this occasion to explain several mistakes and omissions which have been
noticed, especially in the eastern division : namely the name of the Mountain Raon [G.
Raung] has been omitted, and the name of Mount Ijen [G. Idjen] has been incorrectly
engraved Tashem.

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Bangka

Horsfield left Batavia for Bangka on 1 November 1812 aboard the brig Minerva (Captain M.
Holmes) accompanied by Colonel J. Eales, Resident and Commandant of Palembang and
Bangka, Captain J. Hanson, a draughtsman, assistant, Indonesian collectors, and a body of
troops. Ill-health soon began to affect the British garrison on the island and Horsfield was
obliged to act as surgeon. In this connection he established a modest hospital in what was
regarded as a healthy neighbourhood near the village of Ranggam, to the east of Muntok. Both
Eales and Hanson were forced to return to Java because of sickness and the former was suc-
ceeded by Major W. Robison. After consultation with him Horsfield began a botanical, zoologi-
cal and geological collecting tour of the island in March 1813.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD

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In accordance with his instructions (Lady Raffles, 1830:607), Horsfield paid particular atten-
tion to the tin deposits in the island and tin extraction by the Chinese. Geologically Bangka is
more similar to Peninsular Malaysia and Pulau Belitung than to its near neighbour Sumatra, the
ore-producing zone running from Peninsular Malaysia through Bangka and Belitung to south-
west Borneo (Katili, 1974). The island is composed of Triassic sediments and lavas, with some
granites (Jackson, 1969), and Horsfield noted that the highest points of the island were granite
but that the ore was often found in horizontal, sedimentary strata.

After his return to Java in July 1813 Horsfield prepared a long report on the geography and
geological structure of the island for Raffles who in 1817 proposed that it should be worked up
into a book entitled An account of the island ofBanca, in the East Indies. For various reasons, this
work was not completed, and it was only in 1848, as a result of the endeavours of J. R. Logan,
editor of the Journal of the Indian Archipelago, that Horsfield's original report was published in
that periodical, a Dutch translation appearing in the Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie between
1850 and 1852 (Horsfield, 1848).

Even before Horsfield left Bangka some of his botanical and geological specimens were lost for
he records (Lady Raffles, 1830:61 1) how his draughtsman was killed in a scuffle with Indonesians
and many of his specimens destroyed. Unfortunately, what remained of his Bangka geological
collection no longer survives. It is clear from records formerly at the India Museum and now in
the Mineralogy Department Library, British Museum (Natural History), that the collection was
at Fife House, London, during the 1860s; but if, at the final dispersal of materials of the India
Museum in 1879, the collection was given to the Royal School of Mines, enquiries there have
failed to trace it.

There are three versions of Horsfield's catalogue of geological specimens from Bangka in the
India Office Library and Records, London (MSS. Eur. F. 53). One is written by Horsfield and one
by his usual scribe. The third document is a description of the localities written by the scribe and
is entitled ' Section II Mineralogical descriptions of the Island '. In all, two hundred localities were
visited on the northern part of the island, and their locations are marked on the map which
Horsfield made, and which was subsequently engraved. This collection is better documented than
Horsfield's collecting localities in Java so that it is all the more unfortunate that the Bangka
collection is now lost.

Catalogue of rock specimens collected by Horsfield in Sumatra

Much is known about Horsfield's activities in Sumatra during 1818 when he travelled with Sir
Stamford Raffles and Lady Raffles from Padang on the west coast to Pagarruyung. He left
Padang on 14 July with an advance party of coolies, two days before Raffles and Lady Raffles,
and they met up again on 17 July at the toll post beyond Limaumanis. The bed of the river there
'afforded a fine opportunity for collecting specimens of minerals . . . principally of volcanic
origin' (Lady Raffles, 1830:345), and on 18 July further specimens were collected between there
and P. Campeda (Catalogue Nos. 2(?), 5). On 21 July at Saningbakar Horsfield collected in
localities 12, 18-19, and 22. On 22 July the party crossed the Singkarak lake and reached
Simawang, where Raffles records having found ' feltspar, granite, quartz, and other minerals of a
primitive formation . . . mixed with a variety of volcanic productions in the greatest confusion . . .
Dr. Horsfield got specimens of these, which he gave in charge of some coolies who attended him ;
after a day's journey he wished to examine this collection; the men produced their baskets full of
stones, but on the Doctor's exclaiming they were not what he had given them, and expressing
some anger on the occasion, they simply observed, they thought he only wanted stones, and they
preferred carrying their baskets empty, so they threw away what he gave them, and filled them up
at the end of the day's journey, and they were sure they gave him more than he collected ' (Lady
Raffles, 1830:357). Catalogue Nos. 23-29 were collected near Simawang, and Nos. 42-43, 45, and
52-53 at Suruaso and Pagarruyung on 23-24 July. On the return journey No. 56 was collected on
27 July at Peninggahan on the western side of Danu Singkarak, and Nos. 59, 60-63, and 67
between 27 and 30 July in localities from Peninggahan and Pinang. The party arrived back at
Padang on 30 July and Catalogue Nos. 69-71 were collected from Padang Head on that or the

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD
U O V T E FKo'vi PAP A A G t« M R * A S B K A Si (',

109

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Fig. 6 Map showing the journey made by Horsfield in the company of Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles
from Padang to Pagarruyung in July 1818. The map was published in January 1830 by John Murray,
London, and appeared in Lady Raffles' Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles, F.R.S. &c. (London, 1830).

110 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

following day, when the ship Lady Raffles, with Horsfield, Raffles and Lady Raffles on board,
sailed on the return voyage to Benkulen.

Altogether seventy-one specimens from Sumatra are listed in Horsfield's catalogue in the
India Office Library, London, but the catalogue printed below represents only a selection of
rock specimens from Sumatra made by Horsfield after his return to Benkulen on 3 August 1818
for C. M. Ricketts (1776-1867) in Calcutta. The latter was a cousin of Lord Liverpool who had
served as Secretary of the Public Department and later of the Political and Commercial De-
partment in Calcutta before becoming a member of the Bengal Council in 1819. He was a Fellow
of the Geological Society of London and after 1820 a Fellow of the Royal Society. Judging by a
letter which Horsfield wrote from Benkulen to John Fendall (1760-1825) on 18 August 1818, on
the eve of his departure for Java, Ricketts had requested geological specimens from Indonesia
and these were now despatched to Calcutta via Fendall, who had been Raffles' successor as
Lieutenant-Governor of Java in 1816, and who was personally known to Horsfield:

Respected Sir !

I have made a small selection of mineralogical specimens from the collection we
made during our excursion to Menangkabu agreeably to the memorandum of Mr Ricketts
enclosed in your letter, which I request you to present to that gentleman with my respectful
compliments. I have added a catalogue, corresponding to the numbers of our mineral
catalogue. Should it be in my power of ever returning to Java, I will supply you with a
similar selection of descriptive geological specimens from that Island.
I have the honour to remain

Respect Sir

Your obedient & obliged servant,
Thos Horsfield

This collection is now in the British Museum (Natural History), with the above letter, having
been presented by the Geological Society in 1911 in circumstances outlined by Campbell Smith
(1928) and Moore (1982). It seems likely that the Geological Society came into possession of the
collection from Ricketts during the 1820s, probably before he was appointed Consul-General to
Lima in 1827. In any event, this sub-collection is all that remains of the rock specimens collected
by Horsfield in Sumatra, and is for that reason of particular interest. As the collection was
registered at the British Museum (Natural History) in 1911 the numbers bear little relation to
those of the Java collection.

Catalogue of descriptive mineralogical specimens for Mr Ricketts Esq

2. Amygdaloid from Gedong beo

[BM 1911, 1350(1), weathered amgydaloidal lava. Collected 17/18 July 1818.]
5. Trappian stone separating in rhomboidal and parallel fragments found between Gedong beo and

Pulo Champedda

[BM 1911, 1350 (2), slightly weathered granite gneiss or granite. Collected 18 July 1818.]

8. Amygdaloid from a volcanic plain called Danu re#a-[blas?]
[BM 1911, 1350 (3), agglomerate.]

9. Pebbles of various kinds; from the same place
[BM 1911, 1350 (4), weathered granitic rock.]

12. Obsidian found between Solok and Sindang-baker
[BM 1911, 1350 (5), obsidian. Collected 21 July 1818.]

18. Pumice from the lake or Danu at Sindang-baker
[BM 1911, 1350 (6), pumice. Collected 21 July 1818.]

19. Cellular rock; approximately composed of quartz and hornblende from the borders of the lake at
Sindang-baker

[BM 1911, 1350 (7), a siliceous deposit with a mantle of quartz crystals. Collected 21 July
1818.]
22. Pebbles from the borders of the lake on the west side near Sindang-baker
[BM 191 1, 1350 (8), amygdoidal weathered lava. Collected 21 July 1818.]

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 111

23. Pebbles from the borders of the lake on the east side near Semawang
[BM 191 1, 1350 (9), altered quartz porphyry. Collected 22 July 1818.]

24. Impure limestone mixt with particles of [illegible] rock. From the eastern borders of the lake
[Specimens missing]

25. Imperfect granite from the aclivities of the hill between the landing place and the village of
Semawang

[BM 191 1, 1350 (10), plagioclase-quartz-muscovite schist. Collected 22 July 1818.]

26. Fragments of rock consisting of Quartz and Feldspar the latter of a greenish color. From the
same hill — See No 25

[BM 191 1, 1350 (1 1), greenish quartz-epidote rock. Collected 22 July 1818.]

27. Fragments of rock of Quartz and Feldspar — the latter of a reddish color — (See No 25) from the
same hill

[BM 191 1, 1350 (12), reddish quartz-bearing rock. Collected 22 July 1818.]

28. Ochreous brown Iron Stone; passing into decomposed Granite and into a yellow ochreous
deposition from [water?] — From the same hill (See No 25)

[BM 191 1, 1350 (13), contorted quartz-muscovite schist. Collected 22 July 1818.]

29. Iron-ore — From the summit of the hill See No 25 — near the village

[BM 1911, 1350 (14), dense quartz-bearing sedimentary ironstone with pyroclastic compo-
nents. Collected 22 July 1818.]
35. Iron-ore — From Gunning-bezi near Semawang
[BM 191 1, 1350 (15), ironstone similar to the above. Collected 22 July 1818.]

42. Amygdaloid [added later: and sandstone] varieties of this substance from the hills between the
northern banks of the Indragiri river and Suruwasa

[Two specimens. BM 1911, 1350 (16), medium to coarse-grained lithic sandstone with a
ferruginous cement. BM 1911, 1350 (17) is coarse yellow conglomerate. Collected 22 July
1818.]

43. Varieties of Sandstone and stone of aqueous deposition. From the same hills (No 42) found in
conjunction with the amygdaloid

[BM 19 11, 1350 (18), tuff.]
45. Feldspar and imperfect granite — Found between Indragiri river and Surawasa
[BM 1911, 1350 (19), a yellow quartz-muscovite-bearing greywacke. Collected 23 July 1818.]

52. Pebbles. From the bed of the river Sungi-mas at Pagaruyung. Note most of these pebbles are
basaltic and trappean ; but with them are mixt others of a very compact and imperfect Granite
following much of the character of Syenite, which indicate the continuation of the trappean and
primitive parts of Sumatra towards the source of the river

[Two specimens. BM 1911, 1350 (20), a leucocratic gneiss. BM 1911, 1350 (21) is andesite.
Collected 24 July 1818.]

53. Quartzose Iron-ore From the bed of the same river — see No 52

[BM 1911, 1350 (22), ferruginous stained white quartz. Collected 24 July 1818.]
56. Fragments of primitive rock consisting of Granite passing into gneiss and micaceous schistus
found in great abundance on several of the first [ascents'] from the lake at Pininggahan towards
Gedong Pappau and bounded by extensive masses of Marble and Limestone
[BM 1911, 1350 (23), calcite-sericite-bearing metamorphosed pyroxene andesite. Collected 27
July 1818.]

59. Limestone/ Marble/between Paninggahan and Gedong beo

[BM 1911, 1350 (24). This specimen is labelled 60 on the rock which is a limestone with a
calcite vein. There is no specimen 59.]

60. Calcareous spar — From the same place (59)

[No specimen, see above. There is a specimen 61 which is BM 1911, 1350 (25) and is a
crystalline limestone. Probably collected 27 July 1818.]

62. Cellular Limestone. From the same route (59)

[BM 1911, 1350(26), calcareous breccia or concretion.]

63. Slaty limestone. From the same route (59)

[BM 1911, 1350 (27), quartz-bearing limestone. Collected 27 July 1818.]

112

J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

Plate 5 Two of Horsfield's geological specimens from Indonesia. Left, part of a Miocene crustacean (?
Xanthid, crab) from Java (Horsfield's Java catalogue 177). Right, a cluster of quartz crystals from
Padang Head, Sumatra (Horsfield's Sumatra catalogue 69).

64. Fragments of Granite and trappean pebbles from the river ofGedong pappau

[Two specimens. BM 1911, 1350 (28), muscovite granite fragment. BM 1911, 1350 (29) is a
leucogranite. Collected 27 July 1818.]

67. Stone of watery deposition from the ridges between Sambung and Pinang
[BM 191 1, 1350 (30), an altered tuff. Collected 29 July 1818.]

69. Rock crystal from Padang head

[BM 1911, 1350(31), a cluster of quartz crystals. Probably collected 30 July 1818. Illustrated in
Plate 4.]

70. Calcedony, trap &cfrom Padang head

[BM 1911, 1350 (32), three small cherty pebbles. Collected 30 July 1818.]

71. Iron Pyrites — from Padang head

[BM 1911, 1350 (33), a sample of small cubic crystals ofpyrite. Collected 30 July 1818.]

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their thanks to the following persons who have assisted them in
various ways: Mr V. H. Nelson, Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, U.S.A.; Professor T. G. Val-
lance, University of Sydney, Australia; Professor W. Vervoort and Professor A. J. Pannekoek,

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS HORSFIELD 113

Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie, Leiden, the Netherlands; Miss F. A. van Anrooij,
Algemeen Rijksarchief, The Hague, Netherlands; the Rev F. Linyard and the Rev T. Auty,
Moravian Church, London; Mr R. G. C. Desmond, India Office Library and Records, London;
Dr P. B. R. Carey, Trinity College, Oxford; and Mr J. Vink of Godalming, Surrey. Special thanks
are also due to Dr M. H. Hey, Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History) and
Dr C. G. Adams, Mr S. F. Morris, Mr C. P. Nuttall and Dr J. E. P. Whittaker, Department of
Palaeontology, British Museum (Natural History).

Notes

1 There is abundant information on Timothy Horsfield Sr and the Moravian Church in the
United States in Jordan (1909a) and Yates et al. (1968). Timothy Horsfield Sr was involved in the
building of the Moravian immigrant ship Irene at Staten Island in 1744-48.

2 The Moravian Church had its origins in Czechoslovakia in late Medieval times. It was forced
underground after the Thirty Years War in Europe (1618-48), but revived in Germany, the
Netherlands, and to some extent England, as a result of the patronage of Count N. L. Zinzendorf
(1700-1760) in the eighteenth century. Timothy Horsfield Sr (see Note 1) was the friend of two
Moravians of note, David Nitschman (1696-1772) and Peter Boehler (1712-1775). John Wesley
(1703-1791), attributed his own conversion to Boehler during the 1730s.

3 Horsfield's collection is not the only Indonesian geological collection of this period in the
British Museum (Natural History). Captain Basil Hall (1788-1844) R.N., son of the pioneer
experimental mineralogist Sir James Hall (1761-1832), collected in Java in 1816.

4 Horsfield's appointment to the Museum of the English East India Company was influenced
by a letter of recommendation sent by Raffles to the Directors of the Company (Lady Raffles,
1830:629), and his cordial reception in London was due to other letters of recommendation which
Raffles addressed to members of the scientific community in the capital, including one to Sir
Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society (DTC, 20, fols. 105-07, letter dated 14 August 1818).

5 Also buried at Chelsea is Peter Boehler (see Note 2).

6 Horsfield had read widely on geological matters of his time. In addition to the writings of
Werner and De Saussure we know that he was familiar with E. D. Clarke's Travels in various
countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, London, 1810-23 (see Note 7). He had also read Sir George
Steuart Mackenzie's Travels in the island of Iceland, during the summer of the year MDCCCX,
London, 1811 (Horsfield, 1816b:108).

7 Horsfield's reference to Pallas and Clarke is interesting. Professor T. G. Vallance has drawn
our attention to the fact that Clarke in his Travels mentions mud volcanoes in southern Russia. A
possible explanation is set out below and if correct, confirms our view that Horsfield was well
read (see Note 6) :

P. S. Pallas (1741-1811) in English translation from German (Travels through the southern
provinces of the Russian Empire, in . . . 1793 and 1794, London, 1803, 11:319-30) refers to a mud
volcano called Kuuk-Obo or Prekla on the east shore of the straits separating the Sea of Azov
and the Black Sea. Pallas records that on 27 February 1 794 smoke and flame burst from this area
followed by streams of boiling mud, which he later examined. E. D. Clarke (1769-1822) visited
the area some ten years after Pallas on his Russian journey (Travels in various countries of Europe,
Asia, and Africa, London, 1810-23, 1:409) and commented on the phenomenon.

From a geological standpoint, mud volcanoes are known to be associated with diapiric struc-
tures in oilfields and gas seepages. The area described by Pallas and Clarke is an oilfield, and,
interestingly, Pallas refers to an eyewitness account of March 1 794 to the effect that vapour and
mud mingled with rock-oil was still ascending. There is thus reason for thinking that the mire
wells of Pallas and Clarke are associated with hydrocarbon seepage.

8 Mineralogical maps were produced in the eighteenth century in France, England, Germany,
Russia, and Sweden. (For discussion see V. A. Eyles, 'Mineralogical maps as forerunners of
modern geological maps' The Cartographic Journal, December 1972, pp 133-5. This is a reprint
from Geologie 20 of 1971.) An important difference between a mineralogical map and a geological
map is that the age of the rock is an important consideration in geological maps.

114 J. BASTIN & D. T. MOORE

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Hey, M. H. 1973. Mineral analysis and analysts. Mineralog. Mag. 39:4-24.
Holmes, A. 1920. The nomenclature of petrology. Thomas Murby & Co., London.
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1 8144>. Over de rivier van Solo in een brief aan de dirigerende leden van het Bataviasche Genootschap.

Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet. 7 (no. IV): 1-16.

— 1814c. Reis naar de ooster-streken van Java. Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet. 7 (no. IV): 17-31.
— 1814o\ Berigt, van eene met vaste-lucht bezwangerde bronwel. in het regentschap Parakan-Moentjan.
Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet. 7 (no. VIII):1-12.

1816a. On the mineralogy of Java. Essay I. Account of the island from its western extremity to the

mountain of Sumbing, situated near the longitude of Samarang. Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet. 8 (no.
V):l-47.

— 18166. Essay on the geography, mineralogy and botany of the western portion of the territory of the
native princes of Java. Verh. Batav. Genoot. Kunst. Wet. 8 (no. VI): 1-1 83.

— 1821-24. Zoological researches in Java, and the neighbouring islands. Kingsbury, Parbury, & Allen,

London.

— 1828-29. Descriptive catalogue of the Lepidopterous insects contained in the Museum of the Honourable
East-India Company, . . . Parbury, Allen & Co., London. Parts I and II.

— 1848. Report on the island of Banka. J. Indian Archipel. & E. Asia 2:299-336, 373-427, 705-25,

779-824 (Translated into Dutch in Tijd. Ned. Indie, 12 (1850): 192-226, 358-82; 13 (1851):50-62, 273-91,
388-405; 14(1 852) :32 1-45)

1849. Mineralogical descriptions of the island of Banka. Am. J. Sci. 7:86-101.

Horsfield, T., Bennett, J. J., & Brown, R. 1838-52. Planta Javanica Rariores, descripta iconibusque illustratce,
quas in insula Java, annis 1802-1818, legit et investigavit Thomas Horsfield, M.D., . . . H. Allen & Co.,
London.

Jackson, J. C. 1969. Mining in 18th century Bangka: The pre-European exploitation of a ' tin island '. Pacific
Viewpoint 10 (2) :28-54.

Johannsen, A. 1931-38. A descriptive petrography of the igneous rocks. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
4 vols.

Jordan, J. W. 1909a. Moravian immigration to Pennsylvania, 1734-1765. Pennsylvania magazine of history
and biography 33:228-48.

1909b. William Parsons. Surveyor General, and founder of Easton, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania maga-
zine of history and biography 33:340-6.

Junghuhn, F. W. 1845. Topographische und Naturwissenschaftliche Reisen durch Java. Emil Baensch, Mag-
deburg.

1853-54. Java, zijne gedaante, zijn plantentooi en inwendige bouw. C. W. Mieling, The Hague. 4 vols.

Katili, J. A. 1974. Geological environment of the Indonesian mineral deposits. A plate techtonics approach.
Publikasi Teknik-Seri Geologi Ekonomi No. 7. Geological Survey of Indonesia, Pertambangan.

Kirwan, R. 1784. Elements of mineralogy. P. Elmsly, London.

Klaproth, M. H. 1792-1815. Beitrage zur chemischem Kenntniss der Miner alkor per. Posen and Berlin, 6 vols,
[volumes 1 and 2 translated into English in 1801-04 as Analytical essays towards promoting the chemical
knowledge of mineral substances. T. Cadell, London.]

Klickstein, H. S. 1953. A short history of the Professorship of chemistry of the University of Pennsylvania
school of medicine, 1765-1847. Bull. hist, of medicine 27:43-68.

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Le Maitre, R. W. 1976. The chemical variability of some common igneous rocks. J. Petrology 17:589-98.
Macleay, W. S. 1825. Annulosa Javanica, or an attempt to illustrate the natural affinities and analogies of the

insects collected in Java by Thomas Horsfield, M.D., F.L. & G.S. and deposited by him in the Museum of the

Honourable East-India Company. Kingsbury, Parbury, & Allen, London. Part I.
Marchal, J. F. 1824-25. Description geographique, historique et commerciale de Java et des autres iles de

Yarchipel Indien, par MM. Raffles, . . . et John Crawfurd, . . . H. Tarlier & [J. B. A. M.] Jobard, Brussels

[and Paris].
McNair, J. B. 1942. Thomas Horsfield, American naturalist and explorer. Torreya 42:1-9.
Moore, D. T. 1982. An account of the described rock collections in the British Museum (Natural History)

made before 1918; with a provisional catalogue arranged by continent. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

10(4):000-000.
Moore, D. T., Jones, V., Woolley, A. R. & Bishop, A. C. 1919. Catalogue of chemically analyses igneous rocks

in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History). British Museum (Natural History), London.
Neumann van Padang, M. 1951. Catalogue of the active volcanoes of the world including solfatara fields. Part

1 Indonesia. International Vulcanological Association, Naples.
Raffles, T. S. 1817. The history of Java. Black, Parbury, & Allen and John Murray, London, 2 vols.
Raffles, Lady 1830. Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. &c. . . . John

Murray, London.
Smith, W. Campbell 1928. Catalogue of the rock collections in the mineral department of the British Museum

(Natural History) arranged geographically. Part I Africa. The British Museum, London.
Stanley, J. B. (= J. S. Bastin] 1972. Horsfield in the Indies. Straits Times Annual: 84-8. [Reprinted under the

title 'A pioneer naturalist of Indonesia: Dr Thomas Horsfield '. Indonesia Circle 15:3-5 for 1978.]
Van Steenis-Kruseman, M. J. 1950. Malaysian plant collectors and collections being a cyclopaedia of

botanical exploration in Malaysia. In C. G. G. J. Van Steenis. Flora Malesiana Noordhoff-Kolff N. V.,

Jakarta. Ser. I, I :i-clii, 1-639.
White, G. W. 1977. William Maclure's maps of the geology of the United States. J. Soc. Biblphy nat. Hist.

8:266-9.
Yates, W. R., Deppe, F. R., Zug, J. B., Allen, W. H., Butterfield, L. S., Myers, R. E., Strohmeyer, N. J. &

Weinlick, J. R. 1968. Bethlehem of Pennsylvania; The first one hundred years. Bethlehem Book Committee,

Bethlehem.

The Journal of Peter Good

Gardener on Matthew Flinders Voyage
to Terra Australis 1801 — 03

Edited with an introduction by Phyllis I. Edwards

July 1981.21 3pp. Illustrated

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)

Historical Series Vol. 9 Paper covers, £24.00

The Peter Good Journal came into the possession of the British Museum with the manuscripts of
Robert Brown (1773-1858), first Keeper of the Department of Botany (initially named the
Banksian Department). It was transferred, in 1881, to the newly established British Museum
(Natural History) at South Kensington. Associated with the Journal are copies of the seed lists
Good sent to Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820) and a slightly different version of part of his Journal.
Although the Good Journal is mentioned by J. Britten and G. S. Boulger in their A biographical
index of deceased British and Irish botanists (2nd ed., 1931), I have found no other reference to it.
From reading only a few pages of the Good Journal it is evident that it is of both scientific and
historical importance and a valuable supplement to Matthew Flinders own published account A
Voyage to Terra Australis, 1814.

(Phyllis Edwards : Foreword to The Journal of Peter Good)

The Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) is published in five Series,

Zoology, Entomology, Botany, Geology, and Historical. Details and complete lists are free on request.

Publication Sales British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road London SW7 5BD

Titles to be published in Volume 10

Geological aspects of the voyage of HMS Investigator in Australian Waters, 1801-5.

By T. G. Vallance & D. T. Moore.

Seventy years of research in mineralogy and crystallography in the Department of
Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), under the Keepership of
Story-Maskelyne, Fletcher, and Prior: 1857-1927.

By W. Campbell Smith.

The geological researches of Dr Thomas llorsfield in Indonesia 1801-1819.

By John Bastin & D. T. Moore.

An account of those described rock collections in the British Museum (Natural History)
made before 1918; with a provisional catalogue arranged by continent.

By D. T. Moore.

The British Museum and geological communication in the nineteenth century : the Ellen B.
Woodward autograph collection at McGill University.

By S. Sheets-Pyenson.

Typeset by Santype International Ltd., Salisbury and Printed by Billing & Sons, Ltd., Guildford

^ GENE

Bulletin of the

British Museum (Natural HistorW

-9 JU

*. LIBRJ

The British Museum (Natural History)
Celebrating one hundred years at
South Kensington 1881-1981

Historical series Vol 10 No 4 24 June 1982

The Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), instituted in 1949, is issued in four
scientific series, Botany, Entomology, Geology (incorporating Mineralogy) and Zoology,
and an Historical series.

Papers in the Bulletin are primarily the results of research carried out on the unique and
ever-growing collections of the Museum, both by the scientific staff of the Museum and by
specialists from elsewhere who make use of the Museum's resources. Many of the papers are
works of reference that will remain indispensable for years to come.

Parts are published at irregular intervals as they become ready, each is complete in itself,
available separately, and individually priced. Volumes contain about 300 pages and several
volumes may appear within a calendar year. Subscriptions may be placed for one or more of
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the individual parts. Orders and enquiries should be sent to :

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England.

Cover illustration. Sketch of the proposed Natural History Museum in South Kensington by Maurice
Adams, 1879, after the water-colour drawing by Alfred Waterhouse.

World List abbreviation : Bull. Br' Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

Board of Trustees, 1981

Professor T. R. E. Southwood, FRS (Chairman) Professor G. E. Fogg, FRS

Sir Hugh Casson, KCVO, PRA Professor R. J. Harrison, FRS

Professor Sir Frederick Dainton, FRS Professor Sir Andrew Huxley, PRS

Professor J. M. Dodd, FRS Sir Michael Perrin, CBE

Sir Arthur Drew, KCB Professor D. H. Valentine

Sir Hugh Elliott Bt, QBE Professor H. B. Whittington, FRS

© Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1982

ISSN 0068-2306 Historical series

Vol 10No4pp 117-140
British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5BD Issued 24 June 1 982

The British Museum (Natural History)
Celebrating one hundred years at South Kensington
1881-1981

Compiled and edited by Anthony P. Harvey u

Department of Library Services, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London
SW7 5BD

Introduction

On April 18 1881 the doors of the newly built Romanesque building facing Cromwell Road,
South Kensington, opened to admit the first visitors to the vastness of the Central Hall of the
British Museum (Natural History). There was no formal opening, for the Natural History
Museum was considered as merely a new location for the natural history collections housed,
since 1756, in the British Museum at Bloomsbury, some 3 miles away. Indeed, until the British
Museum Act of 1963 the two Museums shared the same Board of Trustees.

By the time the collections were moved from Bloomsbury to South Kensington the
Department of Natural and Artificial Productions — one of the three foundation departments of
the British Museum and the one to which Sir Hans Sloane's natural history specimens were
assigned — had grown by presentation, purchase and exchange into the separate departments of
Zoology, Geology (since 1956 Palaeontology), Mineralogy and Botany.

Since 1881 only one more scientific department has been formed and that from a natural
maturing of the 'Insect Room' of the Department of Zoology into the Department of
Entomology in 1913. However, the Museum collections have grown from a few million items to
more than 50 million; the number of visitors from 231 284 in 1881 to a peak of over three million
in 1977.

Today the Museum has two functions: curation of the national collections and associated
taxonomic research, and public education. Taxonomic research, the identification and
classification of animals, plants, fossils and minerals, is of considerable importance in many
applied fields where it is essential to have an exact knowledge of the identity of organisms and
minerals, e.g. in medicine, veterinary science, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, ecology, conservation,
the storage of perishable products, and in the mining and oil industries. The Museum is uniquely
placed, with its collections from all over the world, to undertake such research work.

The scientific collections and work of the Museum are supported by the 750000 volumes and
9000 current periodicals in the Department of Library Services, and by the skills in biometrics,
electronic data processing, electron microscopy, photography, publishing and specialist
workshops of the Department of Central Services, while the Department of Administrative
Services provides support to all staff.

Public education, through exhibitions, publications and various services to school children and
other visitors, is the responsibility of the Department of Public Services. A major new exhibition
scheme was initiated in 1972 and to date five phases have been completed, the latest on the Origin
of Species being opened in centenary year.

Since its foundation in 1753 and more especially in the hundred years at South Kensington the
Museum has grown to become a major international centre for research in the earth and life
sciences; its collections from those of an enthusiastic amateur to a world renowned data bank for
the natural world; and its public exhibitions from dimly-lit and crowded cases to galleries which
use the most modern techniques and technology to teach an understanding of some of the major
biological themes to millions of visitors.

"r GENER

-9 JUL

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.) 10(4): 1 17-140 Issued 24 June 1 982

118

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Left. Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose collection formed the basis of the British Museum. This
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller, shows Sloane aged about fifty (Courtesy of the Trustees of the
British Museum). Centre. Sir Richard Owen (1804-1892), Superintendent of the Natural History
Departments of the British Museum 1856-1884, aged about eighty. Right. Alfred Waterhouse
(1830-1905), at the age of fifty-five, the architect of the Natural History Museum building, from a
portrait by Sir William Orchardson.

A centenary year

Planning for 'Centenary Year' began in June 1976 and culminated in a wide range of events
throughout 1981, which reflected the diverse activities of the Natural History Museum.

Appropriately, one of the first events was a national competition to design a poster to publicize
the centenary. In collaboration with the BBC TV programme Blue Peter young people were
invited to submit their designs. Of the 33000 entries received, the judges Sir Hugh Casson, David
Attenborough and Roger Miles chose the candle-adorned Stegosaurus by fourteen year old
Amanda Taylor as the overall winner. Amanda thus became the first mentally handicapped
person to win a national art competition. The Museum also issued a medallion and a special logo
was used on correspondence throughout the year.

Nineteen eighty-one began with the opening of the exhibition Nature Stored Nature Studied.
Using books, manuscripts and drawings from the collections of the Department of Library
Services and with specimens from the scientific departments, the displays described the growth of
the collections. Among the great expeditions featured were: Captain James Cook's first voyage of
circumnavigation; the voyage of HMS Beagle, with its naturalist Charles Darwin; and the
pioneering voyages of oceanographic discovery of HMS Challenger. An audio visual programme
specially prepared in the Museum took the visitor 'behind the scenes' and explained the
importance of the collections and the taxonomic research carried out on them, as well as showing
the way in which the libraries support the work of the Museum.

The New Exhibition Scheme, which won for the Museum the title 'Museum of the Year 1980'
and led in 1981 to a special commendation in the competition for the European Museum of the
Year 1980, added another element to the four already open to the public with the opening of the
Origin of Species in May 1981.

As a contribution to the International Year of Disabled People an exhibition on British
natural history, designed for the blind, was open during October and November. The exhibition
offered the opportunity to blind and partially sighted visitors to handle specimens; a specially
prepared tape programme was also available for their use.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

119

Top left. Amanda Taylor (aged 14), top prize-winner in the BBC TV Blue Peter Natural History
Museum Centenary Poster Competition, is pictured second from the left with the Blue Peter team,
Simon Groom, Peter Duncan and Sarah Greene. (Courtesy of the British Broadcasting Corpora-
tion). Bottom left. Amanda Taylor's winning poster, a candle adorned Stegosaurus. Right. Lucy
Butler was a winner in the 8—10 age class. Her poster was made into greeting cards to sell in the
Museum bookshop.

The centenary exhibition Nature Stored Nature Studied showing collections, conservation and allied
research at the British Museum (Natural History).

120

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

A more personal contribution to the cause of the disabled was the successful 100 mile
sponsored run, from the outskirts of Bath to the Museum, by David Cooper of the Department of
Zoology on July 26. He raised £1130 to be divided between Arthritis Care and the Spinal
Building Appeal Fund for Stoke Mandeville Hospital.

In April the Museum joined with the Systematics Association and the Society for the
Bibliography of Natural History (which was founded in the Museum in 1936), in promoting two
international meetings. With the Association a symposium on the theme Time and space in the
emergence of the biosphere was held, and with both the Association and the Society a conference
entitled History in the service of systematics.

Three special lectures were arranged by the Scientific Officers' Association (which can trace its
origins back to the pre- 19 19 Natural History Museum Staff Association) on the general themes of
taxonomy and science.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science celebrated both its own 150th
anniversary and the Museum's centenary by holding a session entitled Animal Identities at its
annual meeting. Papers from three members of the Museum staff were included. A small
exhibition showing the close connections which have existed between the Association and the
Museum was held from July to December in the Museum.

The major 'scientific' event of the Museum's centenary was in November with the Open Days.
All five scientific departments together with the libraries mounted a series of 145 displays which
represented the wide range of research and investigation being undertaken in the Museum. In all
more than 3000 individuals from universities, polytechnics, schools (sixth-formers), governmental
organizations, industry — professionals and amateurs — passed along the corridors and through
the storage areas and studies. Each of the exhibits was manned by an appropriate member of staff
and each had a specially prepared handout. General descriptions of the Departments were also
available. In conjunction with the Open Days the Photographic Section of the Department of
Central Services mounted an exhibition in the Conversazione Room and also the Museum in
Focus, which showed examples of the work produced. The latter was printed and displayed by
Kodak Limited.

Certainly not all the events of the year were based on 'work'. For example on Easter
Saturday — Centenary Day — each of the first 100 children through the doors received, through

A blind person visits the special British natural history exhi-
bition for the blind and partially sighted, open during
October-November.

David Cooper of the Department of
Zoology welcomed by his wife at
the Museum on 26 July after com-
pleting his 100 mile sponsored run
to mark the International Year of
the Disabled.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881 1981

121

The Museum won a special commendation in the competition for European Museum of the Year, 1980.
Here the Director, Dr R. H. Hedley (right) receives a plaque from Mr H. J. de Koster, President of the
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, at the Guildhall, London, on Monday 23 March
1981. (Courtesy of B. Mackenzie).

the generosity of the Zoological Society of London, a ticket entitling them to free admission
either to the London Zoo or Whipsnade. Later in the year the children of Cockernhoe village
school — also celebrating its centenary in 1981 — visited the Museum attired in Victorian costume,
for a Victorian natural history tour by 'Victorian' museum staff.

Left. Children of the Cockernhoe Village School, near Luton, Bedfordshire, visited the Museum on 6
November dressed in Victorian costume. The Museum's guide-lecturer, also suitably dressed, gave
a tour of the galleries. Right. The first one hundred children through the gates of the Museum on
18 April were given tickets for free admission to London Zoo.

122

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

On 23 October the Central Hall rang to the staff 'letting
their hair down' at the Staff Centennial Celebration with
dancing, music, and a buffet complete with a cake in the
shape of the Museum. The event was organized jointly by
the staff side of the Museum Whitley Council and the Sports
and Social Association. The Museum Sports and Social
Association is 61 years old and was a founder member of the
Civil Service Sports Council.

Centenary Year and the preceding one were busy for all
the staff. However, the rewards came with the successful
completion of the celebrations; with praise for the special
publications, and the temporary and permanent
exhibitions; widespread interest and acclaim for the Open
Days; and perhaps most satisfying of all in these times of
financial restraint a seventeen percent rise in the number of
visitors.

Staff centenary social evening in
October, held in the Central Hall.

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* »

UNMMN SOCIETY OF LONDON .^ptllWK*

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vh£ uev. warn ffmat* «-'«

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Montage of some of the congratulations received by the Museum.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

Centenary Open Days — examples of displays

123

Department of Zoology, exhibit on the 'diversity of jumping
spiders', and the use of reference indexes to provide quick access
to information for research and to answer enquiries.

124

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Department of Entomology, exhibit on 'co-evolution of mammals and
their lice', and identification and advisory services to the public.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

Department of Palaeontology, introduction to work of the Departmental Laboratory, and a typical
exhibit, 'corals, coloniality and symbiosis'.

Morals colontatity and symbiosis 1

126

Department of Mineralogy, introducing visitors to the Department, and
an exhibit on 'petrology of archaeological objects'.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

127

Department of Botany, introducing visitors to the Department,
and an exhibit on 'sources of some recent acquisitions'.

128

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Department of Library Services mounted exhibitions in the General Library on 'Scien-
tific explorers and exploration in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', and on
various themes in the departmental libraries, for example, the 'History of the Depart-
ment of Botany' by the Botany Library.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

The centenary central event 27 May

129

Professor Sir Andrew Huxley PRS opened the new permanent exhibition Origin of Species. At
11.30 am speeches were delivered by Professor T. R. E. Southwood FRS, Chairman of Trustees
and Sir Andrew in the gallery to approximately 180 guests. In the afternoon HM The Queen
accompanied by HRH The Duke of Edinburgh paid an official visit. Arriving at 3 o'clock HM
The Queen unveiled a plaque to commemorate the Museum's centenary and received a
presentation of specially bound centenary publications. The Royal Party then viewed the Origin
of Species exhibition.

Meanwhile staff and guests, numbering some 1260 were given tea and viewed the new
exhibition after HM The Queen had gone into the Conversazione Room. An Open University
film entitled The Natural History Museum and introduced by Mark Girouard was shown in the
Lecture Theatre. Amongst the guests were representatives from Government, other scientific
institutes, universities and museums. There were over seventy guests from overseas and foreign
embassies.

In the Conversazione Room HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh viewed a
display of ten scientific exhibits by Museum staff, and had an opportunity to talk with those
manning the displays, heads of departments and other senior staff, as well as Staff Side, Sports and
Social Association representatives, and those involved in the production of the centenary
publications. Before leaving the Museum the Royal Party signed the Visitor's Book and a large
coloured photograph of HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh.

Lill

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Professor Sir Andrew Huxley PRS (right), opened
the Origin of Species gallery in the Museum on
27 May 1981. Seen here with Professor T. R. E.
Southwood FRS, Chairman of Trustees of the
British Museum (Natural History) in a re-
creation of Charles Darwin's study at Down
House in Kent.

Opening of the Origin of Species exhibition

Welcoming address by Professor T. R. E. Southwood FRS, Chairman of Trustees

It is indeed a great privilege and honour to welcome all our guests on behalf of the Trustees,
Director and Staff of the Museum. We much appreciate the presence of representatives of many
foreign museums and extend a very special welcome to them and to our Guest of Honour, the
President of the Royal Society, Sir Andrew Huxley, who has kindly agreed to open this, our
centenary exhibition, on the Origin of Species.

The topic of evolution, the theme of this exhibition, highlights the distinction — and
confusion — between facts and theory.

I should like to place my remarks on this occasion within a somewhat allegorical framework.
I hope this will illustrate the distinction between facts and theory. Let us imagine some Martian
biologists looking at this gathering.

130 ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Firstly they would note that there was a cluster of Homo sapiens and looking more
closely — perhaps with special 'zeta-ray equipment' at the names and addresses in our pocket
books — that we have come from many parts of the country, indeed from many parts of the world
and that we represent different professions and different age groups. They would conclude that
this was an aggregation of Homo sapiens. These would be the facts, then the investigators would
develop a theory to explain this important and unique occasion.

In formulating the theory the Martian team would sieze on another fact, it is now 100 years
since the British Museum (Natural History) moved to South Kensington. They would propose
the 'centenary theory of aggregation'.

However, once this paper was published an iconoclast would write a short letter to the leading
scientific weekly and observe that 'The Centenary Theory' must be fallacious. This is a unique
and clearly important occasion, but the significance of a hundred years is largely
spurious — based simply on the method of numeration used by Homo sapiens. Surely, they would
argue, representatives of foreign museums, research councils and all these others would not
gather to celebrate merely the accretion of three digits in the age record.

So other theories would be published — one would stress the importance of the new exhibition
on the Origin of Species. Evolution is the concept most closely connected with the day-to-day
work of the Museum. It has been the major unifying idea in biology for more than a century. The
first exhibition on this subject was set up by the second Director, Sir William Flower, and the last
by Sir Gavin de Beer in 1958.

Other Martian scientists would decry the total population approach of the above theories and
they would commence a detailed analysis of the participants. They would note the presence of the
President of the Royal Society. The visit of the PRS is a most important occasion at the British
Museum (Natural History), for the Museum has always had a strong association with the
Society. Its founder, Sir Hans Sloane was a Fellow of the Society for 68 years; the Society
donated its own collections to the Museum in 1781, just 200 years ago — a fact that would give
rise to a subsidiary theory — 'the bicentenary of the R.S. donation'. The supporters of the main
'Royal Society theory' would note that until the 1963 Act the PRS was always a Trustee — now
the President is again a Trustee and everyone is delighted and celebrating.

A fourth group would make a more careful scrutiny and they would find our guest of honour,
the President of the Royal Society, had particular family connections both with the Museum and
with the theory of the Origin of Species as propounded by Darwin. They would note, Sir Andrew,
that your grandfather, T. H. Huxley, often referred to as 'Darwin's bulldog', was an active Trustee
and presented Darwin's statue on behalf of subscribers, to the Museum. His own statue was
unveiled in 1900 in the presence of the then Prince of Wales. Your brother, Julian Huxley, was the
architect of the neo-Darwinian synthesis.

Most perceptive Martian scientists would support one of these theories for the origin of today's
gathering, but a few others claiming to apply Occam's razor, and observing the luncheon to
follow, would postulate that this was merely a prefeeding aggregation !

We all have evidence for the validity of one or more of these Martian theories and we probably
recognise that a single reductionist theory for today's gathering is unsatisfactory.

This exhibition seeks to emphasise the fact of evolution, of the diversity of Nature. It aims to
provide the lay-visitor with a Darwinian view of the whole organisms that have in the past or do
at present populate our biosphere. On behalf of the Board of Trustees I would like to
congratulate the many staff, about 70, who under Dr Miles' leadership have been responsible. My
thanks go to them all and to the many outside the Museum, including our partners in the
Property Services Agency, who have contributed to this fine exhibition.

About this fact that the biosphere has evolved and is evolving, there is no argument as our
multi-authored volumes on evolution Chance, change and challenge so clearly show.

The details of the Theory of Natural Selection that seeks to account for the diversity, have
always been controversial. Our perception of many aspects is now different from that of Darwin.
As this subject is so much at the centre of the Museum's research, one would expect its staff to be
active in the exploration of new concepts or revolutionary interpretations — something would be
wrong if they were not.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981 131

Returning to the theory, I would like to express a personal view: I believe the allegory I have
presented of the extra-terrestrial theories for our aggregation is a valid, if slightly frivolous,
model. Our aggregation, our gathering today, has several causes, some distant, some proximate.
Likewise the Origin of Species is a composite theory, the basic mechanism is natural selection,
but the detailed mechanisms will surely be varied and not mutually exclusive.

Sir Andrew, it is with much pleasure that I invite you to declare this exhibition open.

Address by Professor Sir Andrew Huxley PRS

As Professor Southwood has told you, the President of the Royal Society is no longer
automatically a Trustee of the Natural History Museum, but he does still nominate to one of the
positions on the Board of Trustees. My predecessor did not take the opportunity of nominating
himself, but when his nominee conveniently retired just after my appointment, I was delighted to
have that opportunity, and I took it. And I was equally delighted to be asked to perform today's
ceremony since, as long as I can remember, I have had a strong attachment to this place, both
from spending many days in it as a boy, and from the family connections that Professor
Southwood spoke of. To most of my contemporaries and to succeeding generations, the rows
which followed the publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 must seem 'old, unhappy, far-off
things, And battles long ago', but for me they are much more real. My father was not quite old
enough to have been a witness of the famous confrontation in 1860 between his father and the
Bishop of Oxford, as he was born in the same year, but as a young man he met most of the
protagonists of those battles. I almost felt that I knew them myself, both from the stories he told
us of those days, and from reading their biographies and, especially, books such as my
grandfather's essays.

As a centenary, today's event commemorates the opening of this Museum after the first stage of
the transfer of the Natural History collections from the British Museum in Bloomsbury. The
architect of the building itself was of course Alfred Waterhouse, and it is marvellous now to
appreciate the details all over the building that used to be hidden under London grime. But the
architect of the scheme as a whole, and the planner of many of its features, was Richard Owen. He
was one of the greatest comparative anatomists of his time — indeed, of any time — but in my
family he is particularly remembered as my grandfather's adversary in not one but several
controversies — on the vertebrate skull in 1858, on the origin of species in 1860, and on the
relation of man to the great apes in 1862. So, when asked to take part in an occasion which is
partly in honour of Owen, I did have some slight scruples resembling those of Mr Collins in Pride
and Prejudice: adapting the words of his First Epistle to the family at Longbourn, 'For some time
I was kept back by my own doubts, fearing lest it might seem disrespectful to the memory of my
grandfather for me to be on good terms with any one with whom it had always pleased him to be
at variance'.

But in my case the hatchet was in fact buried long ago : T. H. Huxley was seconder of the
appeal for a memorial to Owen, which took shape in the statue at the head of the main stairway
here; he then spoke so eloquently of Owen's work as an anatomist that when Owen's grandson
wrote his biography, he asked Huxley to contribute a section on Owen's anatomical work — and
Huxley did so.

If Professor Southwood's Martians looked not only at this new exhibition but at articles about
evolution and the classification of animals in the weekly scientific press, both of the last few
months and nearer the time of the opening of this building, they could be excused for drawing a
fifth conclusion, namely, that there is a cyclical component in scientific thinking. Nature has
recently printed more than 30 letters centering around attacks on the scientific thinking of
members of the staff of the Museum, and the correspondence has radiated into New Scientist,
Biologist, and even across the Atlantic into Science. Now the basis of these attacks, which have to
do with cladistic principles in classification, must be unintelligible to 99% of the readership of
Nature. Because of my association with the Museum I have made a fairly serious attempt to
understand this debate. I have been quite unable to comprehend the suggestion that cladism is
somehow antagonistic to evolution, or that cladism is linked to the theory that evolution

132 ANTHONY P. HARVEY

progresses by fits and starts, or that cladism is more Marxist than other styles of classification.
And the implication that its supposed Marxist character is a reason against its acceptance in
science is more completely irrelevant than anything else that I can remember reading in a serious
journal.

The only point on which I have become clear is that the letters in Nature must conceal the real
reasons why such strong emotions are expressed: there must be hidden factors at work,
understood only by the taxonomists and evolutionists themselves — dissentions between those
who prefer a more rigorous type of classification on the one hand and those who prefer a more
informative one, and between taxonomists who work on different groups of animals.

And although there are healthy differences of view within the Museum — illustrated for
instance in the book of essays entitled The evolving biosphere — it is not in this Museum that the
animosities I have been referring to are to be found.

But the obscurities and the irrelevances in the recent debate in Nature are such that it is best
described by a phrase applied by my grandfather to an earlier phase of the arguments on
evolutionary matters. In 1894 William Bateson published his famous Materials for the study of
variation and sent a copy to Huxley. In his thank-you letter to Bateson, Huxley said: 'How glad I
am to see . . . that we are getting back from the region of speculation into that of fact again. There
have been threatenings of late that the field of battle of Evolution was being transferred to
Nephelococcygia.' You will remember that Nephelococcygia was the city built by the Birds in
Aristophanes' play, and it is the word which translates into 'cloud-cuckoo land'.

Well, I have been feeling that we have come full circle and that the recent debate in Nature was
likewise in cloud-cuckoo land. Let us hope, however, that the cycle does not bring a repetition of
what happened a few years after Bateson's book. More 'facts' of the very kind that was welcomed
by Huxley led to the rediscovery of Mendelism — precisely the type of inheritance needed for
Darwinian natural selection to operate. But instead of being recognised as such, it was regarded
by most biologists as providing an alternative explanation for evolution, and Natural Selection
went out of fashion for the best part of thirty years, till the work of J. B. S. Haldane and R. A.
Fisher, of Sewall Wright and of Chetverikov, showed that the two theories were complementary
to one another, not alternative, and the neo-Darwinian era began.

In passing, I might mention that in my own subject — muscle contraction — a tremendous
amount of solid knowledge gained in the latter part of the nineteenth century — chiefly by means
of the microscope — was eclipsed in the same sort of way, and at nearly the same date, by the rise
of biochemistry. The eclipse was in fact longer-lasting — it went on for forty years or more — and it
was more complete : the old knowledge was totally lost, the discoveries had to be made afresh,
and it was only later that people came across the papers of the 1870s and 1880s describing these
same phenomena.

Returning to Evolution, is there a danger that history will repeat itself and that neo-Darwinism
will be eclipsed, perhaps by Molecular Biology, in the way that original Darwinism was eclipsed
by classical Mendelian genetics? Let us hope not.

But how can we guard against such an event? I think the moral of what I have been saying is
that simple solutions in biology are seldom complete solutions. This applies both to the way
things actually work and to the way we think about them. Evolutionary change is brought about
through natural selection working on Mendelian variation, not by either working alone, and
other processes such as genetic drift and chromosomal accidents are probably important as well;
in muscle contraction, essential events occur on the light-microscope scale as well as on the
molecular scale; in classification we need to think in terms of grades as well as clades, as was
pointed out by my brother Julian in the article where he proposed the word 'grade'; the proper
emphasis on living as against fossil forms is different in different groups of animals.

If there is so much obscurity and irrelevance in the letters that have been appearing in Nature,
why does Nature publish them? I think the answer is simple, and it is the same as the answer to
the question 'Why does even The Times devote so much space to the Sutcliffe trial?'. It is that
their respective readers enjoy these things. Again, I cannot express the matter better than was
done more than a century ago during the first round of the evolutionary arguments. At the 1862
meeting of the British Association, Owen asserted that there are qualitative structural differences

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

133

The first display in the Origin of Species exhibition.

between the brain of man and the brains of other apes, and this was refuted by T. H. Huxley, with
the support, by the way, of W. H. Flower, who twenty years later succeeded Owen to become
Director of this Museum. After the meeting, Charles Kingsley wrote an imaginary contribution
to that debate. It begins: 'Mr. President and Gentlemen, I mean Ladies and Mr. President, I am
sure that all ladies and gentlemen present will see the matter just as I do; and I am sure we're all
very much obliged to these scientific gentlemen for quarrelling. — No. — I don't mean that, that
wouldn't be charitable and, it's a sin to steal a pin : but I mean for letting us hear them quarrel,
and so eloquently too; though of course we don't understand what is the matter, and which is in
the right . . .'.

I have been speaking about letters which Nature has printed. But I cannot be silent on another
action of Nature. On two occasions earlier this year they have published leading editorial articles
about the Natural History Museum — one in February and one in March. The headline over the
first of these reads 'Darwin's death in South Kensington'. It accuses the Museum of 'selling out on
Darwinism'. 'Can it be' the editor fulminates, 'that the managers of the museum which is the
nearest thing to a citadel of Darwinism have lost their nerve, not to mention their good sense?'.
The Museum sent a brief reply, which Nature did not publish. It read as follows:

Sir,

The Trustees and Director of the British Museum (Natural History) cordially invite the
readers and editor of Nature to the exhibition Origin of Species which opens to the public on
28 May this year, when they will discover that Darwin is alive and well in South Kensington.

134 ANTHONY P. HARVEY

As soon as I finish speaking you will be the first from outside the Museum to discover the truth
of this statement. I have had the privilege of a very thorough pre-view, and I can assure you — if
you need assurance — that you will see an admirably clear exposition of the way in which
evolutionary change of an adaptive kind is brought about by Darwinian natural selection.

The accusations in Nature's editorials were made on the basis of a few words lifted from a
sentence in one of the Museum's brochures, and given a meaning totally different from what is
clearly implied by their context. Naturally the staff of the Museum feel that this was a blow
beneath the belt, and so do I. Nature would no doubt reply that pushing criticism beyond the
point which can be substantiated is a risk that has to be taken by the Press in doing its jot) — a
vital one, as I readily agree — of alerting the public to suspected evil designs in high places.

In this connection I want to say only two more things.

First, I would remind Nature that crying 'wolf will drive its readers into disregarding its future
warnings.

Second, to those who have been wounded by these articles, I would commend the advice given
by Lord Palmerston just one hundred and fifty years ago in relation to another highly respected
journal. The occasion was the foundation of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, which took place in 1831. This newly-formed body was attacked and ridiculed in the
pages of The Times, and Sir Roderick Murchison, one of the Association's most active
promoters, wrote to a friend: T was complaining to Lord Palmerston of the injustice of such
treatment. "Pooh, pooh", said he, "never mind them. A man who is not Times-proof cannot
succeed in life" '. Nowadays we must make ourselves Nature-proof as well.

Most of you will already know that this exhibition is part of the programme of modernisation
that the Museum undertook nearly ten years ago under its previous Director, Sir Frank
Claringbull. Inevitably this programme attracted criticism, in accordance with the immortal
principle enunciated by Francis Cornford in Microcosmographia Academical 'There is only one
argument for doing something; the rest are arguments for doing nothing. The argument for doing
something is that it is the right thing to do'. I am confident that when the dust has settled,
everyone — perhaps I should say almost everyone — will recognise that this modernisation was
indeed the right thing to do.

The four sections of this programme that are already open have proved highly popular; they
are on : Human Biology, Introducing Ecology, The Dinosaurs and their living relatives, and Man's
Place in Evolution. The Trustees' plan for the next stages of the programme, recently announced
in a letter to Nature, will involve less change from the familiar character of the original displays in
the Museum. It consists of exhibits devoted to animal diversity. These will illustrate the range of
creatures found on this planet. There will be three different groups of mammals, living and fossil;
three on different groups of arthropods, and, last in the series, one entitled 'Unity in
Diversity' — an introduction to all the Museum's exhibitions. In addition, an exhibition is planned
on British Natural History, designed to meet the needs of committed naturalists. This
reconstruction will fit the Museum to stride forward into its second century.

And let me remind you of two awards that the new exhibitions in this programme of renewal
have won. The National Heritage Museum of the Year Award for 1980 went to the first three of
these exhibitions, and in the competition for the 1980 European Museum of the Year Award, the
only Special Commendation that came to a museum in Britain was to the Natural History
Museum for the first four of these exhibitions collectively.

In the confidence that this new exhibition, on the Origin of Species, will also prove immensely
successful, I now have great pleasure in declaring it open.

Right. HM The Queen and Professor T. R. E. Southwood FRS cross the Central Hall of the

Museum watched by the staff, and their relations and friends.
Far right. HM The Queen bidding farewell to the Chairman of Trustees, Professor T. R. E.

Southwood FRS and Mrs Southwood (behind) and the Director, Dr R. H. Hedley.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

135

Above. HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh. HM The Queen receives specially
bound copies of books published by the Museum for centenary year, from Professor T. R. E.
Southwood FRS.

136

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

To commemorate their visit to the Museum, HM The Queen and HRH The Duke
of Edinburgh signed a coloured photograph and the visitor's book.

HM The Queen leaving the Museum after the visit. The Mayor and Mayoress of
the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, Councillor and Mrs Arnold H.
Stevenson, stand by the car.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981

Souvenirs of centenary year

137

The Museum has a long association with publishing and since 1881 it has issued more than 3000
books. The range of publications is wide, from the popular introductory guide to research
monographs and catalogues; the Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), instituted in
1949, is issued in five series, Botany, Entomology, Geology, Historical and Zoology. Centenary
year provided an excellent opportunity to publish a number of special volumes.

Actually published in 1980, the three-volume Animal identification, a reference guide (two
volumes edited by R. W. Sims and one by D. Hollis) is a bibliography of primary sources of
reference that can be used to identify animals throughout the world. Chance, change and challenge
is a collection of papers, mostly by Museum staff, on evolutionary subjects and under the general
editorship of P. H. Greenwood. It is published in two volumes: The evolving earth edited by L. R.
M. Cocks, and The evolving biosphere edited by P. L. Forey. The other centenary volumes are
largely concerned with the Museum and its history. The Natural History Museum at South
Kensington: a history of the British Museum (Natural History) 1753-1980 by William T. Stearn
provides a detailed account of the history of the Museum whilst The British Museum (Natural
History) with text by Peter Whitehead, and colour illustrations by Colin Keates goes behind the
scenes and describes the history, collections and work of the Museum. Alfred Waterhouse and the
Natural History Museum by Mark Girouard is an account of the history of the building and some
of its most interesting architectural aspects. Accompanying an exhibition of the same name
Nature Stored Nature Studied: collections, conservation and allied research at the British Museum
(Natural History) describes the growth of the collections and provides a brief review of current
work in each of the scientific departments and the library. Origin of species is a specially written
work that includes all the main ideas and images from the exhibition. A special edition of the
souvenir guide was also issued in 1981. A. E. Gunther, the grandson of a former Keeper of
Zoology and a benefactor to the Museum libraries, published privately a contribution to the
centenary The founders of science at the British Museum 1753-1900.

So that visitors to the Museum might obtain their own memento of the centenary a large
selection of souvenirs were made available for sale in the gift shop. Each souvenir had an
aspect of the Museum building depicted on it and the dates 1881-1981.

138

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Centenary year

Chronology

This chronology deals with events which were either directly connected with the centenary
celebrations or related to them. There were other television and radio broadcasts and many press
articles about the Museum during 1981 which are not included.

January

2

2

5

22

February
10

12
13

March

12

17
18
23

24
30
31

April
6-10

9

10

Exhibition Nature Stored Nature Studied: collections, conservation and allied re-
search at the British Museum (Natural History) opened (ended 3 1 December).

Publication of the book Alfred Waterhouse and the Natural History Museum by
Mark Girouard; and an article entitled 'British Museum (Natural History)' by
W. E. Swinton in Natural History vol 90, no 1.

Visits. Special centenary offer for group visits (ended 31 March).

Broadcast. BBC Radio London on Nature Stored Nature Studied.

Broadcast. BBC TV Nationwide includes feature on the Museum.

Broadcast. BBC Radio London on the 'Importance ofDarwiri.

Lecture. Scientific Officers' Association 1st Special Centenary Lecture. The future
development of taxonomy in Great Britain by Professor V. H. Hey wood.

Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 Kaleidoscope on the centenary of the Museum (repeated 17
February).

Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 Schools programme on Darwin (repeated 26 February).

Lecture. Scientific Officers' Association 2nd Special Centenary Lecture. The taxo-
nomic institution in contemporary society by the Director, Dr R. H. Hedley.

Broadcast. LBC on scientific activities of the Museum.

Broadcast. LBC on dinosaurs.

Award of plaque for special commendation in the competition for European
Museum of the Year, 1980. Presented to the Director by Mr H. J. de Koster,
President of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, at a ceremony
held in the Guildhall, City of London.

Publication of Nature Stored Nature Studied: collections, conservation and allied
research at the British Museum (Natural History).

Publication of Chance, change and challenge under the general editorship of P. H.
Greenwood.

Publication of The British Museum (Natural History) by Peter Whitehead and Colin
Keates.

Symposium organized by the Systematics Association in association with the
Museum entitled Time and space in the emergence of the biosphere.

Publication of 'Evolution of natural history at South Kensington' by R. Fifield in
New Scientist, vol 90, no 1248. The front cover also depicted the Museum.

Publication of The Natural History Museum at South Kensington : a history of the
British Museum (Natural History) 1753-1980 by William T. Stearn.

CELEBRATING ONE HUNDRED YEARS AT SOUTH KENSINGTON 1881-1981 139

April
13-16 Conference organized by the Systematics Association and the Society for the Bibli-
ography of Natural History in association with the Museum entitled History in the
service of systematics.

15 Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 Today on the centenary of the Museum.

16 Broadcasts. BBC World Service Outlook.

Thames Television News.

17 Broadcasts. BBC Radio 4 Kaleidoscope and Today.

Capital Radio. Interviews with staff.

1 8 Centenary day.

Free tickets to the London Zoo or Whipsnade given to the first 100 children through
the doors.

Broadcasts. BBC World Service Science Today.
LBC Jellybone.

19 Broadcast. BBC TV, The ark in South Kensington by David Attenborough (repeated
19 July).

22 Exhibition Indian Botanical Paintings: the golden age of botanical illustration
opened (ended 3 1 July).
Broadcast. BBC Local Radio Service on Indian Botanical Paintings.

25 Publication of the special issue of the Biologist, vol 28, no 2, with articles on the
Museum.

26 Broadcast. BBC TV News Review on Indian Botanical Paintings.
28 Broadcast. BBC TV Lion, a film on taxidermy in the Museum.

May

July

1 Publication of Origin of Species.

5 Broadcast. LBC on the publication of The British Museum (Natural History).

27 Exhibition Origin of species opened by Professor Sir Andrew Huxley PRS.
Visit by HM The Queen and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh.

Broadcasts. BBC Radio 4 on the opening of Origin of Species.

BBC TV News and Thames TV News on HM The Queen's visit.

3 Broadcast. BBC World Service on cladistics (in French).

22 Broadcast. BBC TV Newsnight, 'Controversy in Evolution'.
Capital Radio. Review of Origin of Species.

1 Exhibition to commemorate the close connections between the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, celebrating its 1 50th anniversary and the Museum
(ended 3 1 December).

26 Sponsored 100 mile run successfully completed by David Cooper of the Department
of Zoology. £1130 raised in aid of Arthritis Care and the Spinal Building Appeal
Fund for Stoke Mandeville hospital.
Broadcast. BBC Local Radio Service on David Cooper's 100 mile run.

30 Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 Womans Hour, 'Science simplified'.

October

1 Exhibition. Perception, Hall of Human Biology opened.

Broadcast. LBC on Perception exhibit.

2 Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 on Darwin.

140
October

23

24
26

29

November
6

12

17-19
18

27

December
4

14-16

22

ANTHONY P. HARVEY

Exhibition on British natural history specially designed for visually handicapped

people opened (ended 1 5 November).

Broadcast. Radio Medway on special exhibit for visually handicapped people.

Social evening organized by the Staff Side of the Museum Whitley Council, and the
Museum Sports and Social Association.

Broadcast. BBC TV Swop Shop on dinosaurs.

Broadcast. LBC. Sir Arthur Drew on plans for the East Infill; also a programme on
the Museum as a day out.

Publication of Centenary Miscellanea issue of Bulletin of the British Museum (Natu-
ral History) Geology series vol 35, no 3, with nine short papers, each of which
re-examines historical material in the collections of the Department of Palaeontol-
ogy.

Visit by Cockernhoe School, Bedfordshire in Victorian costume.

Lecture. Scientific Officers' Association 3rd Special Centenary Lecture. What is
science for anyway ? by Professor Sir Frederick Dainton FRS.

Open Days.

Exhibition Museum in Focus opened (ended 31 January 1982).

Broadcast. BBC TV News on the Open Days.

Publication of the centenary issue of the house journal Chrysalis.

Lecture, A botanist looks at evolution by David Bellamy. Delivered twice daily to
invited audience of 6th formers.

Broadcast. BBC Radio 4 on the Children's Centre.

British Museum (Natural History)
1881-1981

Centenary Publications

The Natural History Museum at South Kensington

By W. T. Stearn

This book presents a full history of the Museum, its collections, Directors and eminent members of staff. It

provides for the first time an account of the major research undertaken and insights into the personalities of

the key people in the Museum's development and evolution.

Co-published with William Heinemann.

Alfred Waterhouse and the Natural History Museum

By Mark Girouard

Designed by Alfred Waterhouse in the 1870s the Museum is surely one of London's most outstanding pieces

of architecture.

This attractively illustrated book describes the development of the design and highlights some of the

building's most interesting features.

Co-published with Yale University Press.

British Museum Natural History

By Peter Whitehead & Colin Keates

The Museum is really a huge scientific research institution — acquiring, describing and classifying all

manner of natural history material, both specimens and artworks. It has some of the richest collections of

their kind in the world, and it is these and how they are obtained and managed that are the subject of this

book. The lavish, full colour illustrations and lively text will appeal to everybody interested in natural

history.

Co-published with Philip Wilson Ltd.

Chance, Change and Challenge

General editor P. H. Greenwood

This multi-author twin volume work is one of the Museum's most ambitious publishing projects. In the first

volume The Evolving Earth twenty scientists have been asked to summarize the present state of knowledge

in their particular field, ranging from the origin of the Earth, through ocean sediments and soils to

continental drift and palaeogeography.

In the companion volume The Evolving Biosphere Museum scientists have chosen an evolutionary.

concept — speciation, coevolution, biogeography etc and related this to the group of animals or plants in

which they are specialising.

Co-published with Cambridge University Press.

Animal Identification — A Reference Guide

volume 1 : marine and brackish water. Edited by R. W. Sims.
volume 2 : terrestrial and freshwater. Edited by R. W. Sims.
volume 3 : insects. Edited by D. Hollis.

These guides provide the reader with lists of primary sources of reference that can be used to identify (or
lead to the identification of) living animals throughout the world. The references are arranged in systematic
and geographical sequence in order to facilitate searching.
Co-published with John Wiley & Sons Limited.

Nature Stored Nature Studied

A short guide complementing the exhibition of that name staged in the Museum throughout 1981. It
gives a fascinating insight into the history of the Museum collections and the research carried out 'behind
the scenes'.

Typeset by Santype International Ltd., Salisbury and Printed by Henry Ling Ltd., Dorchester

GENERAL

Bulletin of the - 5 au

W LI!

British Museum (Natural History)

* GENERAL *

<* LIBRARY

An account of those described rock collections
in the British Museum (Natural History) made
before 1918; with a provisional catalogue
arranged by continent

D. T. Moore

Historical series

Vol 10 No 5 29 July 198:

The Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), instituted in 1949, is issued in four
scientific series, Botany, Entomology, Geology (incorporating Mineralogy) and Zoology,
and an Historical series.

Papers in the Bulletin are primarily the results of research carried out on the unique and
ever-growing collections of the Museum, both by the scientific staff of the Museum and by
specialists from elsewhere who make use of the Museum's resources. Many of the papers are
works of reference that will remain indispensable for years to come.

Parts are published at irregular intervals as they become ready, each is complete in itself,
available separately, and individually priced. Volumes contain about 300 pages and several
volumes may appear within a calendar year. Subscriptions may be placed for one or more of
the series on either an Annual or Per Volume basis. Prices vary according to the contents of
the individual parts. Orders and enquiries should be sent to :

Publications Sales,

British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell Road,

London SW7 5BD,
England.

World List abbreviation: Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (hist. Ser.)

Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1982

ISSN 0068-2306

British Museum (Natural History)
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5BD

Historical series

Vol 10 No 5 pp 141-177

Issued 29 July 1982

CfNfRAL *

An account of those described rock collections in the
British Museum (Natural History) made before 1918;
with a provisional catalogue arranged by continent

*

'*+AL H\*

D. T. Moore

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London
SW7 5BD.

Contents

Synopsis

. 141

Introduction

. 141

Collection and curation

142

The rock collection at the British Museum

142

The collection of the India Museum, London

144

The collection of the Geological Society of London

144

Acknowledgements

. 145

References

145

A provisional catalogue of described rock collections

made before 1

918;

and

some

other historical collections ....

146

Africa

146

North America

151

South America

154

Antarctica .

.

157

Asia

158

Australasia .

163

Europe .

165

Oceanic Islands

168

A provisional collectors' index

171

Geographical inde

K.

175

Synopsis

Those described collections of rocks in the British Museum (Natural History) considered to be of historical
interest are listed by continent, in order of collection, with a collectors' and geographical index. The history
of the collection at the British Museum and later the British Museum (Natural History) is briefly outlined,
together with the history of two of the more important collections, those of the India Museum (London) and
the Geological Society of London, which were eventually amalgamated with it.

Introduction

At the present time the principal purpose of the rock collection of the British Museum (Natural
History) is to aid petrological research, and the bulk of the newly acquired material is obtained
with such research in mind. The collection is, however, particularly rich in specimens of historical
interest, and this account is concerned with that material : it is not intended as a catalogue of the
whole collection. Although the older collections naturally tend to have an intrinsic historical
interest, material does not have to be old to be historic. The rocks collected on the 1924 Everest
Expedition and the collection made on the 1955-58 Trans Antarctic Expedition, for example, are
properly regarded as belonging to this category.

Although there are several earlier accounts of the history of the rock collection in the British
Museum (Natural History) there has never been a comprehensive account. Fletcher (1904) traced
the beginnings of the collections of minerals, rocks, and meteorites, and gave a chronological list
of rock acquisitions, with references, up to 1903, but Fletcher's account was written before the

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Hist Ser.) 10(5): 141-177

Issued 29 July 1982

142 D. T. MOORE

Geological Society Collections were acquired. Detailed catalogues are available for Africa
(Campbell Smith, 1928), North and South America (Campbell Smith, 1932), and Antarctica and
Australasia (Campbell Smith and Game, 1954). In the introduction to the African volume
Campbell Smith (1928) traces the early history of the collection and mentions some of the more
notable acquisitions. It is unfortunate that Asia, Europe and Oceania were not covered in this
series. A more comprehensive listing of the collections is given by Bishop et al. (1971) though with
little detail for each collection.

The present catalogue has been compiled with the aims of bringing the published list of
described collections of historic rock material up to 1977, as well as covering the areas not
included by Campbell Smith (1928, 1934), Campbell Smith and Game (1954), and Bishop et al.
(1971).

Collection and curation

From the time of the foundation of the British Museum in 1753 until 1837 few records of rock
acquisitions were kept, but a system of registration was introduced in 1837 which ensured that
accurate records were maintained thereafter. From these records Figure 1 has been prepared
showing the numbers of specimens registered over the last 140 years. Three particularly large
collections are worthy of mention, namely those of Samuel Allport (1816-1897), the India
Museum, and the Geological Society (see Fig. 1.).

New acquisitions to the rock collection have always been numbered and housed in order of
registration. Although this system has considerable advantages, particularly in economy of
storage, it does not enable rocks acquired from the same locality but at different times to be kept
together, nor does it enable material collected during an expedition but acquired by the Museum
at different times to be numbered in order. This problem applies particularly to the India
Museum and Geological Society Collections, which in some cases included parts of rock
collections which were already represented in the Museum. The problem is however overcome by
card indexes.

In the nineteenth century a considerable period of time often elapsed between the collection of
the specimens, and the acquisition and registration of the material by the Museum. For example,
the Flinders/Brown collection of Australian rocks made in 1801-5 was acquired by the Museum
in 1811, but not registered until the 1890s. For this reason the present catalogue has been
arranged within continental subdivisions according to year of collection, as far as this can be
determined. The Campbell Smith catalogues (1928, 1932 & 1954) and the catalogue of Bishop
et al. (1971) are geographical in arrangement.

For some of the older collections in particular, it is often difficult to establish who was the
actual collector. Consequently, the 'Collectors' Index', at the end of the catalogue, can only be
provisional. Also, whilst every effort has been made to ensure accuracy in the catalogue, it should
be understood that this is often difficult to achieve in a collection of this size and age.

Details of the collections for registration are obtained from lists, diaries and other documents
acquired with the rocks. Where they still exist, these manuscripts are housed in the Mineralogy
Library, British Museum (Natural History).

Most early geological collections included specimens of minerals and fossils. These are not
kept with the rock specimens, but have been incorporated into the mineral collection and the
collections of the Department of Palaeontology, respectively.

The rock collection at the British Museum

A considerable amount is known about the early years of the mineral collection in the British
Museum (Campbell Smith 1969, Fletcher 1904), but the rock collection is less referred to.

In the late eighteenth century two important geological collections that contained rocks came
to the Museum. The Museum of the Royal Society of London was given to the British Museum
in 1781. Grew's (1681) catalogue of the Royal Society Museum is extant but, unfortunately, none
of the known geological/mineralogical specimens appear to be, although Woodward (1904) lists

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918

143

Fig. 1 Registration of rock specimens in the British Museum (Natural History) from 1837-1980
by decade. The total number of registered specimens at the end of 1980 was of the order of 99,000.

palaeontological material as being still in existence in his time. A second eighteenth century
collection known to have contained rocks (Stern, 1981), and collected by Captain George
Vancouver, RN (1757-1798) and the naturalist Archibald Menzies (1754-1842) in the Pacific,
came to the Museum in 1796. Many of Menzies' plant specimens survive in the Department of
Botany, but none of the geological material can be found.

Vallance and Moore (1982) pointed out that the Synopsis of the contents of the British Museum
(8th edition, 1814:54) lists 'Mountain rocks and other minerals, from the South Sea: King
George's Sound, New Georgia and & C as being in case 16 of room 8 at Montague House.
Room 8 also had other rock specimens on display according to the Synopsis. The 1808 Edition of
the Synopsis records that in room 8 there were rock specimens from King George's Sound

144 D. T. MOORE

[Western Australia], New Georgia [Solomon Islands] and Dusky Bay [New Zealand]. To have
been on display at Montague House in 1808 they must have been collected in the late eighteenth,
early nineteenth century, and the expeditions of Vancouver and Cook seem likely collectors.
Unfortunately, there are indications that following a rearrangement of the mineral collection in
1817 by Charles Konig (1774-1851) these specimens were lost or thrown away, at any rate they
are never mentioned again and cannot now be found.

It is known (Campbell Smith 1969:257) that Konig also moved some rock collections to the
basement of Montague House in 1824, and that due to the dampness some of the labels were
destroyed. Campbell Smith (1969) suggested that rock material collected by Sir John Ross
(1777-1856) on his Arctic expedition of 1818 was lost at this time. (Interestingly, Ross's material
now in the Department came from the Geological Society of London). There was disturbance
again in the 1830s and 40s when the present British Museum building was occupied, and again
when the collections were moved to South Kensington in 1880.

There followed a burst of registration of rock collections in the 1890s, (some of the collections
registered at that time had been collected 90 years before), and a separate rock register was begun
in 1898. This suggests that little curation of the rock collection was undertaken at Bloomsbury.

In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century two other large and important rock
collections were amalgamated into the present rock collection of the British Museum
(Natural History). They were the collection of the India Museum, London, and the Museum of
the Geological Society of London.

The collections of the India Museum, London

The India Museum and Library of the British East India Company began its existance in 1801,
under Sir Charles Wilkins (1749-1836) according to Arberry (1967:24). The Museum was by no
means concerned solely with geology, and was under the direction of the Librarian until 1837.
Thereafter the scientist in charge of the Museum was Dr Thomas Horsfield (1773-1859).

When the parent company's existence ended during the India Mutiny, the Museum moved
from the Company's House in Leadenhall Street, London, to Fife House off Whitehall, then to
galleries at South Kensington, and the dispersal of the contents began. The geological specimens
came to the British Museum, soon to be the British Museum (Natural History), in several batches
between 1860 and 1879. The question of the India Museum collections however, is discussed in
more detail by Moore (1982).

The collection of the Geological Society of London

According to Woodward (1907), the museum of the Geological Society existed as early as 1809,
and by 1819 G. B. Greenough (1778-1855) asked for a committee to be appointed to administer
it. In its early days the museum was divided into two, with a section for beginners, which included
simple minerals and fossils, and a section for the more proficient, which included foreign
specimens, and material of a controversial nature.

By the time the Society was established at Somerset House in the 1830s, Leonard Horner
(1785-1864) appears to have been the curator of the museum. The museum at this time was
situated on the third floor of Somerset House (Woodward 1907:75), but appears to have been
little used (Woodward 1907:145). William Lonsdale (1794-1871), a survivor of the battles of
Salamanca and Waterloo, succeeded Horner as curator until 1842, when Edward Forbes
(1815-54) succeeded him.

By 1860 it was felt that the Society's museum should concentrate on its foreign collections, as
the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street was well placed to provide British specimens
(Woodward 1907: 245). Also, it was becoming clear that the library was growing faster than the
museum, and needed more space than was originally allocated (Woodward 1907:246).
Consequently, the Council decided in 1869 to restrict the acquisition of specimens to the
museum.

The Society moved to its present apartments at Burlington House in 1874, and there followed

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918 145

a rearrangement and dispersal of some museum material. At this dispersal material went to the
British Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology, King's College, London, the University of
Cambridge, and the Orphans Working School, Haverstock Hill, London (Woodward 1907:249).
In 1895 Dr H. Woodward (1832-1921) hinted that expansion of the library would soon require
the space occupied by the museum, and in 1901 the idea was accepted that the time was right to
transfer almost all the specimens in the museum to other institutions (Woodward 1907:249).

The Geological Society resolved finally to dispose of the contents of the museum in 1911 (Proc.
geol. Soc. Lond., Session 1910-11, p.cii.191 1). It was agreed at a special general meeting held on 19
June of that year that the British material should go to the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn
Street, and the foreign specimens to the British Museum (Natural History).

When the material was unpacked at the British Museum (Natural History), it was found to be
impossible to identify many of the specimens (personal communication, Dr W. Campbell Smith,
who was Assistant Keeper in the Department of Mineralogy in 1911.) The material, which bore
no means of identification, was in due course thrown away in accordance with the Geological
Society resolution 4 (op. cit. supra). At the British Museum (Natural History) 426 drawers were
retained, of which 5 were given to the then Department of Geology (now Department of
Palaeontology), and the rest to the Department of Mineralogy. However, a considerable number
of documents, also received in 1911 from the Geological Society and clearly related to both
extant, and lost specimens, are now in the Mineralogy and Palaeontology Libraries of the British
Museum (Natural History). The ' waste book ' and some other registers of the Geological Society,
are held in the Palaeontology Library, British Museum (Natural History).

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Dr A. C. Bishop, Mr P. G. Embry, Mr R. G. C. Desmond, Dr W.
Campbell Smith, Professor T. G. Vallance and Dr A. R. Woolley for considerable help and
advice.

References

Arberry, A. J. 1967. [First published 1938]. The India Office Library, a historical sketch. Commonwealth

Office, London. 109pp.
Bishop, A. C, Jones, V., Moore, D. T. and Woolley, A. R. 1971. Catalogue of the Rock Collections in the

British Museum (Natural History). British Museum (Natural History), London.
Fletcher, L. 1904. Department of Minerals. Series B. Rocks. In: The History of the Collections contained in

the Natural History Departments of the British Museum. Vol. 1. British Museum, London. 2 Vols.
Grew, N. 168 1. Catalogue & description of the natural and artificial rarities belonging to the Royal Society and

preserved at Gresham Colledge [sic] Printed by W. Rawlins, London. 384pp. + Appendices and plates.
Moore, D. T. 1982. Geological collectors and collections of the India Museum, London, 1801-79. Archives

of Nat. Hist. 10 (part 3): 399-428.
Smith, W. Campbell. 1928. Catalogue of the Rock Collections in the Mineral Department of the British

Museum (Natural History) arranged geographically. Part I. Africa. British Museum, London.
1932. Catalogue of the Rock Collections in the Mineral Department of the British Museum (Natural

History) arranged geographically. Part II. America. British Museum, London.

1969. A History of the first Hundred Years of the Mineral Collection in the British Museum, with

particular reference to the work of Charles Konig. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Hist, ser.) 3: 237-259.
Smith, W. Campbell and Game, P. M. 1954. Catalogue of the Rock Collections in the Mineral Department of

the British Museum (Natural History) arranged geographically. Part III. Antarctica and Australasia.

British Museum, London.
Stern, W. T. 1981. The Natural History Museum at South Kensington. Heinemann, London. 414pp.
Vallance, T. G. and Moore, D. T. 1982. Geological aspects of the voyage of H. M.S. Investigator in Australian

waters, 1801-5. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Hist, ser.) 10: 1^13.
Woodward, A. S. 1904. The Department of Geology. In: The History of the collections contained in the

Natural History Departments of the British Museum. Vol. 1. The British Museum, London. 2 vols.
Woodward, H. B. 1907. The History of the Geological Society of London. The Geological Society, London.

336pp.

146

D. T. MOORE

A provisional catalogue of described rock collections made
before 1918; and some other historical collections

An attempt has been made below to list all described rock collections made before 1918.
References are included only where it is thought that the circumstances of collection, or the
geology/petrology of the collections are referred to. General references to the geology of the area
are not included. However, certain early (pre- 1820) but undescribed collections are included, as
are some later historical collections, because of their intrinsic interest.

Described material at one time in the India Museum, London, is indicated. Also, described
material at one time in the collection of the Geological Society of London can be recognized by
its present museum number bearing the preface 1911.

Africa

pre-1816 South Africa, Cape Town area, B. Heyne. BM 54991. (India Mus. Coll'n).

South Africa, [Mr] Pohlman. BM 1911,1405.

1816 Zaire, C. Smith and [ ?] Tudor. BM 7455 1-89.

C. Konig, 1818. Appendix (vi) 486-8. In: J. K. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition
to explore the River Zaire, usually called the Congo, in South Africa in 1816. John
Murray, London. 498pp with appendices.

1817 South Africa, J. Adam. BM 191 1,1402-3.

South Africa, Cape Town area, D. Carmichael. BM 191 1,1404.

1820 Sierra Leone and Los Islands, [?] Nicol and Earl Bathurst. BM 74468-531.

1822-3 Egypt, J. Burton and G. B. Greenough. BM 1911,1383. For further notes on this

collection see Campbell Smith (1928, p5).

1824 Northern and central Africa, D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W. Oudney. BM

74590-656.

C. Konig, 1826. Appendix xxiii 247-61. In: D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W.
Oudney, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in northern and central Africa in the
years 1822, 1823, 1824. John Murray, London. 269pp.

circa 1830 Egypt, Sir John Gardner Wilkinson F.R.S. BM 13528-88 and BM 74657-742. See
also Sinai (Asia).

J. G. Wilkinson, 1832. Notes on a part of the eastern desert of Upper Egypt. Jl R.
geogr. Soc. 2 : 28-60.

1835. Topography of Thebes and general view of Egypt, . . .from Sooez [sic] to

Berenice. John Murray, London. 595pp.

1843. Modern Egypt and Thebes: . . . John Murray, London. 2 vols.

1840 Egypt, Lt T. J. Newbold H.E.I.C. Madras army. BM 191 1,1386.

T. J. Newbold 1842 [Egyptian] Specimens offered to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 11 : 1131-5.

1842. On the geology of Egypt. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 4: 324-49.

circa 1843 South Africa, A. G. Bain. BM 191 1,1440.

A. G. Bain, 1845. On the discovery of the fossil remains of Bidental and other
reptiles in South Africa. Trans, geol. Soc. Lond. 7: 53-9.

before 1855 Lower Egypt, L. Horner. BM 1 9 1 1 , 1378-9.

L. Horner. 1855. An account of some recent researches near Cairo, undertaken
with the view of throwing light upon the geological history of the alluvial land of
Egypt. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 145: 105-38.

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918

147

South Africa, R. N. Rubidge. BM 191 1,1398.

R. N. Rubidge, 1857. On the copper mines of Namaqualand. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond.

13:233-9.

South Africa, P. C. Sutherland. BM 191 1,1422.

P. C. Sutherland, 1855. Notes on the geology of Natal, South Africa. Q. Jl geol.

Soc. Lond. 11: 465-8.

1858 South Africa, R. N. Rubidge. BM 191 1,1399.

R. N. Rubidge, 1859. On some points in the geology of South Africa. Q. J I geol.
Soc. Lond. 15: 195-8.

before 1864 Egypt, Dr A. L. Adams, Surgeon 22nd Regiment [of Foot]. BM 191 1,1377.

A. L. Adams, 1864. Notes on the geology of a portion of the Nile valley north of
the second cataract in Nubia, taken chiefly with the view of inducing further
search for fluviatile shells at high levels. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond. 20: 6-19.

before 1867 Upper Egypt, Sir John Clarke Hawkshaw. BM 191 1,1376.

J. C. Hawkshaw, 1867. Geological description of the first cataract, upper Egypt. Q.
J I geol. Soc. Lond. 23 : 1 1 5-9.

1867-8 Ethiopia, W. T. Blandford, during the 1 867-8 Abyssinian war. BM 43 1 1 8-84.

W. T. Blandford, 1870. Observations on the geology and zoology of Abyssinia, ...
Macmillan & Co., London. 487pp.

1869. On the geology of a portion of Abyssinia, ... Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 25:

401-6.

G. T. Prior, 1899. Riebeckite in trachytic rocks from Abyssinia. Miner alog. Mag.

12:92-5.

Ethiopia, Dr W. Schimper. BM 42917-3006.

A. Sadebeck, 1869. Geonostische Skizze der Umgegend von Axum und Adoa in
Tigre. Z. Ges. Erdk. Berl.4: 347-52.

G. T. Prior, 1900. Aegirine and riebeckite anorthoclase rocks related to
grorudite-tinguaite series from the neighbourhood of Adowa and Axum,
Abyssinia. Miner alog. Mag. 12: 255-73.
1868 Sinai, Egypt and Jordan, — see Asia.

before 1871 South Africa, J. Shaw. BM 47246-82 and 47284-6.

J. Shaw, 1871. On the geology of the diamond fields of South Africa. Q. Jl geol.
Soc. Lond. 28: 21-7.

1871 South Africa, W. G. Atherstone. BM 1911,1411.

W. G. Atherstone, 1896. Kimberley and its diamonds. Trans, geol. Soc. S. Afr.
1 : 76-87.

South Africa, T. R. Jones. BM 191 1,1409.

T. R. Jones, 1871. Notes on some fossils from the Devonian rocks of the

Mitzenberg Flats, Cape Colony. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 28: 28-30.

South Africa, G. W. Stow. BM 191 1,1392 and 1395.

G. W. Stow, 1871. On some points in South African geology. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond.

27:523-48.

1871. On the diamond gravels of the Vaal River, South Africa. Q. Jl geol. Soc.

Lond. 28: 3-17.

before 1874 South Africa, G. W. Stow. BM 191 1,1393.

G. W. Stow, 1874. Geological notes on Griqualand West. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond. 30:
581-680.

1885 Egypt, borings in the Nile delta. BM 82819-93, and 1905,313.

J. W. Judd, 1885. Report on a series of specimens of the deposits of the Nile delta,
obtained by recent boring operations. Proc. R. Soc. 39: 213-27.

148 D. T. MOORE

1897. Second report on a series of specimens of the deposits of the Nile delta,

obtained by boring operations undertaken by the Royal Society. Proc. R. Soc. 61 :
32-40.

1897. Second report of a series of specimens of the deposits of the Nile delta,

obtained by boring operations undertaken by the Royal Society. Nature, Lond.
55: 548-9.

Egypt, Aswan, Sir John William Dawson. BM 191 1,1375.

J. W. Dawson, 1886. Note on the geological relation of rocks from Assouan [Sic]

and its neighbourhood. Geol. Mag. n.s., dec 3, 3: 101-3.

T. G. Bonney, 1886. Note on the microscopic structure of some rocks from the

neighbourhood of Assouan, collected by Sir J. W. Dawson [Sic] Geol. Mag. n.s.

dec 3, 3: 103-7.

Tanzania, H. H. Johnston (later Sir Henry Hamilton Johnston). BM 62142.

T. G. Bonney, 328-9 In H. H. Johnston, 1886. The Kilima-njaro Expedition.

Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London. 572pp.

1886. Report on the rocks collected by H. H. Johnston Esq., from the upper

part of the Kilima-njaro massif. In Rep. 55th meeting Br. Ass. Advnt. Sci.

(Aberdeen) 1885. 682-5.

L. Fletcher and H. A. Miers, 1887. Supplementary note on feldspar from

Kilima-njaro. Mineralog. Mag. 7: 131-2.

H. A. Miers, 1886. Orthoclase from Kilima-njaro, and adularia from Switzerland.

Mineralog. Mag. 7: 10-1 1.

1888 Somalia, S. King and T. Rupert Jones. BM 66440-501.

C. A. Raisin, 1888. On some rock specimens from Somali Land. Geol. Mag. n.s.
dec 3, 4: 414-8.

Socotra, Col M. Gosset. BM 66501-23.

C. A. Raisin, 1888. On some rock specimens from Socotra. Geol. Mag. n.s. dec 3, 5:

504-7.

before 1889 Madagascar, Rev J. Wills. BM 65766-844.

G. T. Prior, 1901. Melilite basalt from Amparafaravola, Madagascar. Mineralog.
Mag. 13:89-90.

Egypt, G. F. S. Elliot. BM 81 159-297.

C. A. Raisin, 1893. Contributions to the geology of Africa, 1. Rock specimens from

Upper Egypt. Geol. Mag. n.s. dec. 3, 10: 436-40.

1892 Kenya and Uganda, C. W. Hobley and J. W. Gregory. BM 86853, 84757-8 and

1921,536.

C. W. Hobley, 1895. Upon a visit to Tsavo and the Taita Highlands. Geogr. J. 5:
545-61.
J. W. Gregory, 1896. The Great Rift Valley. John Murray, London. 422pp.

1900. Contributions to the geology of British East Africa. Part II. The

Geology of Mount Kenya. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 56: 205-22.

1900. Contributions to the geology of British East Africa. Part III. The

nepheline-syenite and camptonite dykes intrusive in the Coast Series. Q. Jl geol.
Soc. Lond. 56: 223-9.

1921. The Rift valleys and geology of East Africa. Seeley, London. 479pp.

G. T. Prior, 1903. Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa, etc.
Mineralog. Mag. 13: 228-63.

Sierra Leone, G. F. S. Elliot. BM 81298-400.

G. F. S. Elliot & C. A. Raisin, 1893. Reports on botany and geology. Colon. Rep.

misc. Ser. 3. Sierra Leone: 61-78.

C. A. Raisin, 1893. Contributions to the geology of Africa, 2. Specimens from West

Africa (Sierra Leone). Geol. Mag. n.s. dec 3, 10: 440-1.

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918

149

1894

before 1896

1897

1898

pre-1899

189SM900

1902

Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia and Ruwenzori, Uganda, G. F. S. Elliot and J. W.

Gregory. BM 84751 ; and M. Fergusson, BM 85216(1-4).

G. F. S. Elliot & J. W. Gregory, 1895. The geology of Mount Ruwenzori and some

adjoining regions of equatorial Africa. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond. 51 : 669-80.

G. F. S. Elliot, 1896. A naturalist in mid Africa, being an account of a journey to the

mountains of the moon and Tanganyika. A. D. Innes & Co., London. 413pp.

M. Fergusson, 1901. Geological notes from Tanganyika northwards. Geol. Mag.

n.s. dec 4, 8: 362-70.

G. T. Prior, 1903. Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa etc.

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 228-63.

A. Lacroix, 1923. Comparison de quelques regions eruptives avec celles de

Madagascar. Mineralogie de Madagascar. 3 : 227-94. Augustin Challamel, Paris. 3

vols.

Somalia, E. Lort-Phillips and others. BM 85814.

J. W. Gregory, 1896. Notes on the geology of Somali-land, based on collections

made by Mrs E. Lort-Phillips, Miss Edith Cole and Mr G. P. V. Aylmer. Geol.

Mag. n.s. dec 4, 3: 289-94.

G. P. V. Aylmer, 1898. [Part II of] Two recent journeys in northern Somaliland.

Geogrl. J. 11: 34-48.

Transvaal, South Africa, F. H. Hatch. BM 83684-799.

F. H. Hatch, 1898. A geological survey of the Witwatersrand and other districts in
the Southern Transvaal. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 54: 73-100.

Ethiopia, R. Koettlitz. BM 1920,520.

R. Koettlitz, 1900. A journey through Abyssinia to the Nile. Notes on geology and

anthropology. Geogrl. J. 15: 264-72.

C. A. Raisin, 1903. Petrological notes on rocks from south Abyssinia, collected by

Dr Reginald Koettlitz. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond. 59: 292-306.

Swaziland, T. R. Jones. BM 84243.

T. R. Jones, 1899. Notes on the geology of West Swaziland, South Africa. Geol.

Mag. n.s. dec 4, 6: 105-111.

Socotra, H. O. Forbes and W. R. Ogilvie Grant. BM 84752.

J. W. Gregory, 1899. Notes on the geology of Socotra and Abd-el-Kuri. Geol.

Mag. n.s., dec. 4. 6: 529-33.

South Africa, Natal. BM 1908,436.

W. Anderson, 1901. First report of the Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand.

Pietermaritzburg.

1904. Second report of the Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand. London.

1907. Third and final report of the Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand.

London.

G. T. Prior, 1910. Petrological notes on the dolerites and rhyolites of Natal and
Zululand. Ann. Natal. Mus. 2: 141-57.

Madagascar, A. Lacroix. BM 1912,432. A. Lacroix, 1902. Materiaux pour la

mineralogie de Madagascar. Les roches alcalines caracterisant la Province

petrographique d'Ampasindava. Nouv. Archs Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris. Serie 4, (4):

1-214.

Sudan, Capt S. Flower. BM 851 12-4.

G. T. Prior, 1903. Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa etc.

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 228-63.

Uganda, Sir Henry Hamilton Johnston. BM 85753.

L. Fletcher and G. T. Prior. Notes on the collections of rocks and mineral specimens

from the Uganda Protectorate made by Sir Harry [sic] Johnston, Messrs George

Wilson, Racey, Wm. Grant, C. W. Hobley, F. W. Isaac and others. 1: 304-12. In:

150 D. T. MOORE

H. H. Johnston, 1902. The Uganda Protectorate. Hutchison & Co., London. 2

vols.

G. T. Prior, 1903. Contribution to the petrology of British East Africa etc.

Miner alog. Mag. 13: 228-63.

Zimbabwe, A. J. C. Molyneux. BM 86803-5.

A. J. C. Molyneux, 1903. The sedimentary deposits of Southern Rhodesia. Q. J I

geol. Soc. Lond. 59: 266-85.

1903 Kenya, M. Alluaud. BM 1 906,63.

A. Lacroix, 1923. Comparison de quelques regions eruptives avec celles de

Madagascar. Miner alogie de Madagascar 3: 227-94. Augustin Challamel, Paris. 3

vols.

G. T. Prior, 1903. Contributions to the petrology of British East Africa, etc.

Mineralog. Mag. 13: 228-63.

pre-1904 Somalia, Major R. G. Edwards Leckie. BM 1917, 40-43.

These specimens are unfossiliferous limestones but the corresponding
palaeontological collections are described in :

R. B. Newton, 1905. The Tertiary fossils of Somaliland, as represented in the
British Museum (Natural History). Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 61 : 155-80.

1909 Malawi, A. R. Andrew. BM 191 1,331.

A. R. Andrew & T. E. G. Bailey, 1910. The geology of Nyasaland. Q. Jl geol. Soc.
Lond. 66: 189-237.

South Africa, J. Noth. BM 1910,724.

J. Noth, 1912. Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Petroleumvorkommens in

Orange-River-Freistaat in Siid-Afrika. Foldt. KM. 42: 942-7.

South Africa, F. H. Hatch. BM 1926,585.

F. H. Hatch, 1909. A catalogue of a collection of rocks and minerals from Natal

and Zululand, arranged stratigraphically. Natal Government Museum, Pieter-

maritzburg. 71pp.

1910-11 Nigeria, P. A. Talbot. BM 1912,443.

W. Campbell Smith, 1912. In: P. A. Talbot, The shadow of the bush. William
Heineman, London. 480pp.

1911 Kenya, J. Parkinson. BM 1913,397.

J. Parkinson, 1913. On a group of metamorphosed sediments situated between
Machakos and Lake Magadi in British East Africa. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond.
69:534-9.

Kenya, F. Oswald. (' The Felix Oswald Expedition ')• BM 1 922, 1 1 3.
F. Oswald, 1914. The Miocene beds of the Victoria Nyanza and the geology of the
country between the Lake and the Kisii Highlands. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond.
70: 128-62.

Mozambique, A. Holmes, E. J. Wayland and D. A. Wray. BM 1919,295.

A. Holmes & D. A. Wray, 1912. Outlines of the geology of Mozambique [sic].

Geol. Mag. n.s. dec 5. 9: 412-7.

- 1914. The lateritic deposits of Mozambique. Geol. Mag. n.s. dec 6. 1 : 529-37.

1917. The tertiary volcanic rocks of the district of Mozambique. Q. J I geol.

Soc. Lond. 72: 222-79.

1919. The Pre-Cambrian and associated rocks of the district of

Mozambique. Q. J I geol. Soc. Lond. 74: 31-98.

pre-1912 Sudan, Kordofan, C. G. Seligman. BM 1912,578-9.

W. Campbell Smith, 1920. Volcanic rocks in northern Kordofan, Sudan. Nature,
Lond. 104: 693.

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918 151

South Africa, A. Cowley. BM 1912,358.

W. Campbell Smith, 1912. A spherulitic dolerite from Vryheid, Natal. Ann. Natal

Mus. 2: 381-91.

South Africa, Cape Province, R. H. Rastall. BM 1912,532.

R. H. Rastall, 1911. The geology of the districts of Worcester, Robertson and

Ashton (Cape Colony). Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 67: 701-33.

North America

(inc. Caribbean & Greenland)

pre-1812 Canada, Manitoba, A. Edwards and [Mr] Holdsworth. BM 191 1,1437.

Lord Selkirk, 1821. Notes concerning the geology of part of North America lying
to the west of Hudson's Bay. Trans, geol. Soc. Lond. 5 (1st series): 598-608.

1812 Barbados, an unknown person, and presumed from the eruption of Soufriere (St
Vincent). For notes on other 1812 volcanic dust collections see Campbell Smith
(1932: 115, 118). BM 67661 and 67567.

Antigua, N. Nugent. BM 1911,1486-7.

N. Nugent, 1821. A sketch of the geology of the island of Antigua. Trans, geol. Soc.

Lond. 5 (1st series): 459-75.

1813 Greenland, Disko Island, C. L. Metzler (afterwards Sir Charles Ludwig Giesecke).
BM 1911,1594.

C. L. Giesecke, 1823. On the mineralogy of Disko Island. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb. 9:

263-72.

1816 U.S.A., Massachusetts, J. W. Webster. BM 191 1,1447.

J. W. Webster, 1825. Lettre adressee a M. Boue sur la constitution geologique des
environs de Boston. Annls. Sci. nat. 4: 253-6.

1825. Remarks on the geology of Boston and its vicinity. Boston Journ. Phil.

2:277-92.

Canada, Quebec, Lord Selkirk. BM 1911,1436. Probably an undescribed

collection, see Campbell Smith (1932, p.64).

1818 Canada, Baffin Bay and Greenland, Capt J. Ross R.N. (later Sir John Ross). BM

1911,1596.

J. MacCullock, 1819. Appendix No 3 lxv-lxxxii. In: J. Ross, A Voyage of discovery
made under the orders of the Admiralty in His Majesty's ships Isabella and
Alexander. John Murray, London. 252pp.
U.S.A., the Eastern States, W. Maclure. BM 191 1,1445.

W. Maclure, 1818. Observations on the geology of the United States of North
America ... Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. n.s. I: 1-91.

1819-21 Canada, Sir William Edward Parry on his first Arctic Expedition 1819-20. BM

75896-918, 76546 and 191 1,1597.

C. Konig, 1821. Appendix ccxlvii-cclvii. Observations on the rock specimens. In:
W. E. Parry, Journal of a voyage for the discovery of the northwest passage, from the
Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years 1819-20, in His Majesty's ships
Hecla and Griper, . . . John Murray, London. 310pp.

C. Konig, 1823. An account of the rock specimens collected by Captain Parry
during the northern voyage of discovery, performed in the years 1819-1820. Q. J I
Lit. Soc. Arts Lond. 15: 1 1-22.

Canada, (but an overland expedition unlike the above), Sir John Richardson on
Franklin's first expedition of 1819-22. BM 1914,1111 (part).
J. Richardson, 1823. Appendix 1, Geognostical Observations 497-538. In: J.
Franklin, [sic, only the first edition has the appendices] Narrative of a journey to

152

D. T. MOORE

1822
1823

1825
1825-7

1826

1827
1828

1833

before 1836

1837
1841

before 1845

the shores of the polar sea in the years 1819, 20, 21 and 22. John Murray, London.
786pp.

Canada, Newfoundland, Lady Hamilton. BM 191 1,1439.

Canada, Sir William Edward Parry on his second Arctic Expedition. BM

80004- 1 2, 800 1 4-20 and 1 9 1 1 , 1 598.

W. E. Parry, 1824. Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of the Northwest

passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific performed in the years 1821-3 in His

Majesty's ships Fury and Hecla under the orders of Captain William Edward Parry

R.N. F.R.S. John Murray, London. 558pp.

See also a note concerning this collection in Campbell Smith (1932: 59).

Labrador and Newfoundland, Lt R. Morrison R.N. BM 191 1,1438.

Canada, Ontario, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Dr J. Richardson, on Sir John

Franklin's second expedition overland to the polar sea. BM 1911,1427 and

1914,1111 (part).

J. Richardson, 1828. Appendix 1. pp (i-lviii). In: J. Franklin. Narrative of a second

expedition overland to the polar sea, in the years 1825, 1826 and 1827. John

Murray, London. 320pp.

There are further notes on this collection in Campbell Smith (1932:66, 70). The

reference below is conceivably also applicable to this collection.

J. Richardson, 1828. Topographical and geological notices, from information

collected during the expedition to the northwest coast of America under the

command of Captain Franklin. Proc. geol. Soc. Lond. 1 : 66-9.

Canada, Ontario, Lt H. W. Bayfield, R.N. BM 74845-902.

H. W. Bayfield, 1829. Outlines of the geology of Lake Superior. Trans, lit. hist.

Soc. Quebec. 1 : 1-43.

1845. On the junction of the transition and primary rocks of Canada and

Labrador. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 1 : 450-9.

U.S.A., Massachusetts, D. Hussack. BM 191 1,1449.

California and Alaska, Lt Belcher R.N. See under Oceanic Islands.

U.S.A., Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, U.S.A., Capt B. Hall, R.N. BM

1911,1446.

B. Hall, 1829. Travels in North America. Cadell & Co. Edinburgh. 3 vols.

Canada, Quebec, Capt H. W. Bayfield, R.N. BM 191 1,1441.

H. W. Bayfield, 1837. Notes on the geology of the north coast of the St Lawrence.

Trans, geol. Soc. Lond. 5 (2nd series): 89-102.

Mexico,}. Burkart. BM 1911,1461.

J. Burkart, 1836. Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico in den Jahren 1825 bis 1834. E.

Schweizerbarts Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart. 230pp.

Canada, Nova Scotia, A. Gesner. BM 191 1,1664.

A. Gesner, 1836. Remarks on the geology and mineralogy of Nova Scotia. Gossip

and Coade, Halifax. 272pp.

Canada, New Brunswick, Lt Bowen, R.N. BM 1008, 101 1-12 and 1033.

Canada, New Brunswick, W. J. Henwood. BM 191 1,1442.

W. J. Henwood, 1842. Note to accompany a series of specimens from Chaleur Bay

and the river Ristigouche in New Brunswick. Proc. geol. Soc. Lond. 3: 454-6.

Barbados, W.I., Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk. BM 18864-5.
R. H. Schomburgk, 1848. The history of Barbados ; Comprising a geographical and
statistical description of the island; ... and an account of its geology and natural
productions. Longman, Brown, Green and Longman, London. 722pp.

BM(NH) ROCK COLLECTIONS PRE 1918

153

before 1851 Dominican Republic (Hispaniola), Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk. BM
1911,1491.

R. H. Schomburgk, 1853. The peninsula and bay of Samaria, in the Dominican
Republic. J I R. georgr. Soc. 23: 275-9.

1851 Arctic Canada, Capt H. T. Austin R.N. on an arctic search [for Sir John Franklin]
expedition in HMSV Pioneer. BM 75822-70, 75853-73 and 80022-30.

J. W. Slater, 1853. On Arctic Silurian fossils Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. 9: 313-7.
For notes on this collection, see Campbell Smith (1932: 60).

1852 Arctic Canada, Wellington Channel, Franklin, Surgeon R. M'Cormick R.N. BM
66343-74 and 1921,398(7-11).

R. M'Cormick, 1854. Dr M'Cormick's expedition up the Wellington Channel in the
year 1852, commanding HM boat Forlorn Hope in search of Sir John Franklin.
HMSO, London. 39pp.

1884. Voyages of discovery in the arctic and antarctic seas, and round the

world; being personal narratives of attempts to reach the north and south poles; . . .

Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, London. 2 vols.